European Colonialism and the Anthropocene - A View from the Pacific Coast of North America (2013) (15 pages)

G Model ANCENE-12; No. of Pages 15 K.G. Lightfoot et al./Anthropocene xxx (2013) e1-e15 ed In 1808 and 1811, the RAC sent its own boats, crews, and native hunters to Alta California to harvest sea otters, as well as to scout for possible places to establish a permanent colony in Alta California. The Russians returned to northern California in 1812 to found the Ross Colony, which served as the base of operation for Russian sea otter hunts in California (Fig. 1). It also served as an agrarian enterprise for growing food for Russian colonists in Alaska, as well as a mercantile center for trading with SpanishMexican California, particularly with the Franciscan missionaries who had extensive surpluses of grain and meat that the RAC purchased as foodstuffs for its North Pacific outposts (Farris, 2012). With the founding of the Ross Colony two kinds of hunting expeditions took place in Alta and Baja California. One involved teams of Native Alaskans in their baidarkas sweeping the waters north of the Russian settlements to Trinidad Bay and south along the Sonoma and Marin county coasts (Fig. 1). They also portaged skin boats over to San Pablo and San Francisco Bays to harvest substantial sea otter populations from these interior waters (Ogden, 1933:40). The other expeditions involved the use of Russian ships that carried the Native Alaskan hunters, skin boats, and hunting equipment to more distant waters in southern California and Baja California where sea otters thrived. Offshore islands not occupied by the Spanish, particularly the Channel Islands, served as bases of operation for hunting in southern waters. In addition, a permanent artel (hunting camp) was established in 1812 on the Farallon Islands for hunting fur seals and sea lions, and harvesting sea gull feathers, meat, and eggs. The southward expansion of the RAC into northern California took a tremendous toll on the area’s marine fauna. For example, Ogden (1933:36) cited the voyage of the American ship, the Albatross, from which Russian and Native Alaskan workers harvested more than 30,000 fur seals from the Farallon Islands in 1810-11, in addition to the sea otter yields listed in Table 1. RAC documents noted that thousands of fur seal pelts were harvested in California waters after the founding of the Ross Colony, including 3276 from Bodega Bay alone in 1823 (Ogden, 1933:42). Khlebnikov (1976:123) detailed the wholesale slaughter that took place on the Farallon artel where during the first six years an average of 1200-1500 fur seals were killed (for a total of 8427), which gradually decreased in number until only 200-300 were obtained per year. About 200 sea lions were taken each year for their hides, meats, and intestines used for manufacturing baidarkas, waterproof garments, and for food. Anywhere from 5000 to 10,000 sea gulls were dispatched in a typical year, although in 1828 more than 50,000 were killed, primarily for their feathers and meat (Khlebnikov, 1976:123). RAC documents showed that the joint contract hunting system with American merchants yielded more than 24,000 sea otter pelts from 1803 to 1812 (Table 1). Independent Russian expeditions from 1808 to 1823 harvested, at a minimum, another 6300 sea otter pelts, the majority from northern California waters (i.e., Trinidad Bay to Drake’s Bay) (Table 2). These numbers include only those sea otters hunted by the RAC and their partners. They do not include the thousands of otters obtained as part of the Spanish commercial trade that began in 1786, as well as by independent American skippers and companies (Ogden, 1941:15-44, 66-94, Appendix 1). Market hunting had a devastating outcome for local sea otter populations. It did not help matters that both yearlings and pups were harvested in large numbers (see Tables 1 and 2). As early as 1817-1818, RAC records indicated that sea otters had been purged from the waters immediately north and south of the Ross Colony (Gibson, 1976:16; Tikhmenev, 1978:135). While the RAC continued sea otter hunting in the 1820s and 1830s, it was undertaken in partnership with the newly formed Mexican government (1823), in which the harvests were split equally between the RAC and Mexican agents. Furthermore, these hunts took place some distance from the Ross Colony using Russian ships to transport hunters from San Francisco Bay southward to southern Alta California and Baja California waters (Khlebnikov, 1976:110-113; Ogden, 1933:46-51). By all accounts sea otters had been extirpated from northern Alta California waters (Trinidad Bay to the Marin Headlands) by 1820. What were the ecological consequences for the extinction of E. lutris from northern Alta California waters? Sea otters are recognized as keystone species that can influence the structure and organization of nearshore communities, particularly kelp Table 2 Sea Otter Harvests from RAC Hunting Expeditions 1808-1823. Compiled from Khlebnikov (1976:108-109, 1994:10-12) and Ogden (1933:38-45, 1938:109-127, 1941:161166). Year Hunting expedition Region of hunt Adult sea otters Yearlings Pups Grand total 1808 Kuskov Trinidad Bay 1453 406 491 2350 “Kad’ak” Bodega Bay 1811 Kuskov Bodega Bay, San Francisco Bay 1160 78 2 1238 “Chirikov” 1812-1815 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 714 163 2 877 California 1815 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 114 39 ? 153 California 1814 Wadsworth and Farallon Islands, Channel Islands, 322 50 20 392 Nikiforov San Pedro, “T!”mena” 1815 “T!”mena” Santa Barbara Channel ? ? @ 955 1816 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 84 13 2 97 California 1817 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 44 11 2 55 California 1818 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 10 3 ? 13 California 1819 ? On IImen Island 58 13 ? 71 1820 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 16 6 ? 22 California 1821 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 32 3 ? 35 California 1822-1823 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 39 4 ? 43 California Total 4046 789 511 6301 Please cite this article in press as: Lightfoot, K.G., et al., European colonialism and the Anthropocene: A view from the Pacific Coast of North America. Anthropocene (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2013.09.002

G Model ANCENE-12; No. of Pages 15 K.G. Lightfoot et al./Anthropocene xxx (2013) e1-e15 ed In 1808 and 1811, the RAC sent its own boats, crews, and native hunters to Alta California to harvest sea otters, as well as to scout for possible places to establish a permanent colony in Alta California. The Russians returned to northern California in 1812 to found the Ross Colony, which served as the base of operation for Russian sea otter hunts in California (Fig. 1). It also served as an agrarian enterprise for growing food for Russian colonists in Alaska, as well as a mercantile center for trading with SpanishMexican California, particularly with the Franciscan missionaries who had extensive surpluses of grain and meat that the RAC purchased as foodstuffs for its North Pacific outposts (Farris, 2012). With the founding of the Ross Colony two kinds of hunting expeditions took place in Alta and Baja California. One involved teams of Native Alaskans in their baidarkas sweeping the waters north of the Russian settlements to Trinidad Bay and south along the Sonoma and Marin county coasts (Fig. 1). They also portaged skin boats over to San Pablo and San Francisco Bays to harvest substantial sea otter populations from these interior waters (Ogden, 1933:40). The other expeditions involved the use of Russian ships that carried the Native Alaskan hunters, skin boats, and hunting equipment to more distant waters in southern California and Baja California where sea otters thrived. Offshore islands not occupied by the Spanish, particularly the Channel Islands, served as bases of operation for hunting in southern waters. In addition, a permanent artel (hunting camp) was established in 1812 on the Farallon Islands for hunting fur seals and sea lions, and harvesting sea gull feathers, meat, and eggs. The southward expansion of the RAC into northern California took a tremendous toll on the area’s marine fauna. For example, Ogden (1933:36) cited the voyage of the American ship, the Albatross, from which Russian and Native Alaskan workers harvested more than 30,000 fur seals from the Farallon Islands in 1810-11, in addition to the sea otter yields listed in Table 1. RAC documents noted that thousands of fur seal pelts were harvested in California waters after the founding of the Ross Colony, including 3276 from Bodega Bay alone in 1823 (Ogden, 1933:42). Khlebnikov (1976:123) detailed the wholesale slaughter that took place on the Farallon artel where during the first six years an average of 1200-1500 fur seals were killed (for a total of 8427), which gradually decreased in number until only 200-300 were obtained per year. About 200 sea lions were taken each year for their hides, meats, and intestines used for manufacturing baidarkas, waterproof garments, and for food. Anywhere from 5000 to 10,000 sea gulls were dispatched in a typical year, although in 1828 more than 50,000 were killed, primarily for their feathers and meat (Khlebnikov, 1976:123). RAC documents showed that the joint contract hunting system with American merchants yielded more than 24,000 sea otter pelts from 1803 to 1812 (Table 1). Independent Russian expeditions from 1808 to 1823 harvested, at a minimum, another 6300 sea otter pelts, the majority from northern California waters (i.e., Trinidad Bay to Drake’s Bay) (Table 2). These numbers include only those sea otters hunted by the RAC and their partners. They do not include the thousands of otters obtained as part of the Spanish

commercial trade that began in 1786, as well as by independent American skippers and companies (Ogden, 1941:15-44, 66-94, Appendix 1). Market hunting had a devastating outcome for local sea otter populations. It did not help matters that both yearlings and pups were harvested in large numbers (see Tables 1 and 2). As early as 1817-1818, RAC records indicated that sea otters had been purged from the waters immediately north and south of the Ross Colony (Gibson, 1976:16; Tikhmenev, 1978:135). While the RAC continued sea otter hunting in the 1820s and 1830s, it was undertaken in partnership with the newly formed Mexican government (1823), in which the harvests were split equally between the RAC and Mexican agents. Furthermore, these hunts took place some distance from the Ross Colony using Russian ships to transport hunters from San Francisco Bay southward to southern Alta California and Baja California waters (Khlebnikov, 1976:110-113; Ogden, 1933:46-51). By all accounts sea otters had been extirpated from northern Alta California waters (Trinidad Bay to the Marin Headlands) by 1820. What were the ecological consequences for the extinction of E. lutris from northern Alta California waters? Sea otters are recognized as keystone species that can influence the structure and organization of nearshore communities, particularly kelp Table 2 Sea Otter Harvests from RAC Hunting Expeditions 1808-1823. Compiled from Khlebnikov (1976:108-109, 1994:10-12) and Ogden (1933:38-45, 1938:109-127, 1941:161166). Year Hunting expedition Region of hunt Adult sea otters Yearlings Pups Grand total 1808 Kuskov Trinidad Bay 1453 406 491 2350 “Kad’ak” Bodega Bay 1811 Kuskov Bodega Bay, San Francisco Bay 1160 78 2 1238 “Chirikov” 1812-1815 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 714 163 2 877 California 1815 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 114 39 ? 153 California 1814 Wadsworth and Farallon Islands, Channel Islands, 322 50 20 392 Nikiforov San Pedro, “T!”mena” 1815 “T!”mena” Santa Barbara Channel ? ? @ 955 1816 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 84 13 2 97 California 1817 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 44 11 2 55 California 1818 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 10 3 ? 13 California 1819 ? On IImen Island 58 13 ? 71 1820 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 16 6 ? 22 California 1821 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 32 3 ? 35 California 1822-1823 Ross Settlement North Coast of Alta 39 4 ? 43 California Total 4046 789 511 6301 Please cite this article in press as: Lightfoot, K.G., et al., European colonialism and the Anthropocene: A view from the Pacific Coast of North America. Anthropocene (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2013.09.002