Volume 24 (1872) (424 pages)

April 27, 1872. ] SCIENTIFIC PRESS. 259 MECHANICAL Procress The Physical Properties of Steet. What ig steel? This is 4 point which has been munch discussed, but one upon which no conclusion has been reached, chiefly from tho fact that tbe meaning of the werd has never been clearly defiued. We have the series—pigiron, steel and wrought-iron; hut the exact limits of steel have avver yot heen defined. The province of stecl is sometimes enlarged, sometimes unreasonably circumscrihed. In its propertics and in its manufacture it is cemrisyd between tho liniits ef cast and wroagbtiron—but when it begias or whenit ends has never been defined. We condense the followiug from a work recently pahlished by M. L. Graner, ef the Paris Schooler Mines :— The elements which enter into the iren in its cenversion to steel are quite various, and ef such slight proportions, in relation to the mass of iren, tbat even their exact determinations are difficnlt. Thoso uncertainties render it extremely difficult, if not impessible, to preduce two Spacimens of stecl cxactly alike. The same difliculties, indecd render it equally difticult to prescrihe the exact limits ef the compositien of cast and wrought-iron. The same foreign elemonts are found in castiren, steel and wreught-irou—the difference hetween the differont members of the series is due aelely to varying relative propertiens, and chiefly to tbe single element of carhon. In each instance.this element is feund partly in inerely mechanical mixture and partly in intimate combiuatien or rather selution, . The large influence which carben excrts on iron may be inferred frem the fact that when iren isin acertain condition it requires only a fow tonths ef one per cent, to se medify it as te canse tho iren to pass into that which is unqualifiedly steel. Indeed Rivet appcars to think that the two are chemically identical—that stec] is a mere change in the melecular censtitution ef iron. There are certain eres knewn as ‘ores of stetl,’” which naturally preduce steel at a ccrtain stage ef fining, hut which hy still farther fining pass inte iron, Again this same iren gives steel ofa superior quality or cementation. All metals, in fact, undergo remarkable ebanges throngh the influence of exceedingly small proportions of various fereign snhstanees. Cepper is partly modified by the merest trace of oxygen, sulphur orlead, zinc and tin by ouly a few tenths of onc per cent. of iron; gold, according to Fremy, is rendered as brittle as antimony by one one-hundredths of one per cent. of lead or hismuth. According to Fremy nitrogen exercises an importsnt influence on iron—that steél is due not to the presence of carbon alone, but to a combination of iron with nilrocarburets. Careful analysis, however, shows that there is no fixed relation between the properties of nitrogen and carben in either-steel, or iron—and that the proportions of gitrogen are found to vary, while those of carbon are moro constant. Hence it has been supposed that the presence of the former is more or less accidental and unimportant. " Analysis shows that crude wrought-iron retains a part of all the elements present at the reduction of the orc in tbe blast furnace, and when steel is obtained from iron by fining, only those elements are completely eliminated which are readily oxidized, and here only a slight affinity for iron. Among those thus retained in greater or less proportions are carbon, aluminun, sulphur, phosphorus, silicon and copper. In reality, steel and wronght-iron arecompounds almost as cemplex as the crude pig which comes from the furnace—the proportions only are less. The proportions of carbon ia that metal have no absolute value as_regards its tempering power or the facility with which it may be drawn out. All the carbon in whiteirons and tempered steel is really combined or held in solution, while in gray iron and steel not tempered, a pertien of the carbon remains deposited in the form of graphite. . ; New Srorrine ron Ovsa10ns.—A material which has come quite extensively into use in Germany, asa suhstitute for hair in the stuffing of saddles, etc., consists of a mixture of flax seed and tallow. The advantage of this suhstitute consists primarily in the fact that the mobility of the seeds, one upon the other, prevents the-packing or settling in any particular place, as often happens .in saddles stuffed with hair, thus causing any given pressure to be readily and uniformly distributed over any given surface. The tallow serves the purpose, too, of keeping the leather flexible, and of preventing the 4bsorption of perspiration, protects tho article itself, and prevents the back of the animalfromhecoming galled. Animals with soros or galled spots en the back can be ridden with saddles stuffcd with this material without any great inoonvenience. The tallow algo has the effect of preventing the rotting of the flax sced, and is to be added in sufficient qnantity to give the requisite softness to the entire mass. An aromatic odor can be imparted by introducing oil of turpentine or camphor powder, and the durability considerably increased thereby. One part of tallow to from six to ten parts of flax seed may be used, accerding to the temperature. -or never last more than, three yeara. Band-saws for Cutting Large Timber. The substitatien ef the band suw, for the old style of reciprocating gig-saw, has preduced in many kinds ef weed werking & decided revelutien in the greater speed with which the werk may be performed. But few would suppose that the same principle conld bo adopted to advantago in sawing large legs frem the forests. This, however, has heen dene, and sawing machines ceustructed on this principle, capable of sawiug stuff ferty-eight fect in length, are for sale hy firins located both in Philadelphia and Londen. We de not knew that these havo yet heen nscd to an extent warranting the belief that they will prove mero nseful for ordinary sawmill werk, or for sawing timber which two circular saws, one above the ether, aro found capable of cuttiug into plank; but for various special purpesos, like the shaping ef ship timher and many others, this adaptation of the band-saw seems to possess much merit, aud will doubtless meet with extended faver, and may pessibly, admit ef modifications in its structure now untheught of. As concerns the propertiens ef the machine as mado for beavy sawing, we tind the diameter of tho wheels ovor which the saw passes ststed at six feet. These wheels are of wrenght iren, and are tightened against the saw to a tension of frem twe and one-half to ten tens, the upperniost wheel being vertically adjustablo a distance of twenty inches, and having its shaft, four inches in diameter, of steel. The shaft of the lower wheelis of wrought iren and is half an inch greater in diameter, and the jeurnal bexes of both are lined with hard hrass. The log carriage is commenly made with especial reference to the variety ef work for which the machine is designed, and of course varies accerding to circumstances. Ter resawing, fecd rolls are fitted to the apparatus. The preduction of large machines of this kind furnishes 2 goed example of what may be done in extending the utikhty of an invention merely by the application of mechanical judgment without any exercise of what can be properly calicd inventive gkill.—Cabinet Maker. Wrovont-rren Trzs.—An Englisb sciéntific jeurnal makes the fellowing interesting statements: The new railway sleeper which has lately been breught ferward in England, is Ukely, it is theught, to prove ef special advantage in seme respects, and particularly in tropical countries. The constructers of the various railways in India, for example, experience the greatest difficulty in making and maiutaining the permanent way. The dry rot, and those pests of India, the white ant, are terribly destructive. Sleepers sent from England creosotedand ‘‘pickled”’ are: not protected from the influence of the sun and vermin, and seldom It was necessary, therefore, to find a substitute impervious to the attacks of insects, which might be made perfect and ready to be laid down whenever and wherever required. The new sleeper is made up of a number of webs and plates of rolled iron, rivited together, and pierced with bolt-holes for the chairs. This is estimated to save about two-thirds of the labor of laying, and leaves but little work to be done by native jor other labor. The direct cost is found to be not more than one shilling each above that of the best wooden sleeper, and they are, calculated to last ten times as long in_ tropical countries, and three times as long in Europe. Many eminent engineers and railway constructors, who have examined these sleepers, express great confidence in their snperior adaption. Tun iron sea forts now in course of censtructien for the defence of the prominent naval stations of Great Britain, will, with the foundations, cost five milion dollars apiece. The iron shell of one of the forts for Spithead, near Portsmouth, has been shipped by rail for that harbor from the works of thé Whitworths, in the iron districts. This shell or skeleton weighs twenty-four hundred tons, and is to be fitted up with fifteen inch iron ‘plates twenty‘six feet in length. Each fort is to be seven hundred feet in circumferonce and two hundred and thirty feet high, They are to be armed with two tiers of.guns, one tier of twenty-four 600. pounders, and the other of trout 400 pounders. The guns, it is calculated, will pierce twelve inch iron ships at two thousand yards distance. Brown Tervr ror Iron anv SteeL.—Dissolve, in four parta of water, two parts of crystallized chloride of iron, two parts of chloride of antimony and one ae of gallie acid, and apply the solutien with a sponge or cloth to the article, and dry it in the air. Repeat this any number of times, according to’ the depth of color which it is desired to produce. Wash with water and dry, and finally rub the articles over with boiled linseed oil. The metal thus receives a brown tint and resists moisture. The chloride of antimony should be as little acid as possible. AntrFictAL Burnumo Stone isnow made with air chambers extending through the entire walls, rendering them airy in summer and winter, impervious to frost, and comparatively water and fire-proof. The coping grooves together, forming one continuoua solid stone, ever protecting the walls from the destroying elements of fire and water. The ‘‘ Coming Stone” for foundation is stronger than many natural stones, and for building purpeses— properly prepared—artificial bnilding stone is as little liable to disintegration as natural stones, §clENTiFIC Progress. Atmospheric Influences on Lunacy. The Chaplain of the Hayward's Heath Lunatic Asylum, Brighton, Eng., appends to the lnst anunal repert of that institution, a very interesting paper ou the ‘Effects of Meteerological Fucts of Insanity.’’ A chart shews the rise and fall of lunacy for the last four years in relation to the changes of the atmosphere, the phases ef the moon, the amouut of ozone ii the nir, the rainfall, cte, One of the results ef this chart is fatal to the «vulgar error,’’ that gives its very uame to lunacy. ‘There is,” says Mr. Crallan, ‘very little difference to he discevered in patients’ fits hetwcen the avcrage numbers fer those duys on which the meon’s changes -occur, and for the days composing the rest of the menths, and what little differeuce there is in favor ef the days on which no such change occurs.”” itis very different with the sun. ‘I find,” says Mr. Crallan, ‘‘upen examinatien of 212 accessions ef fits, thut, with five exceptions, they have been preceded er accompanied hy . 8' considerahle altcrutien in atmospheric pressure er solar radiation, er beth; and here, 1 believe, lics the clue fer which I have been secking. Fer it scems to me tolerably clear that when a great fall or a great rise of the hurometer, or a great rise or fall of solar radiation eccurs—i.e., a decided change from bright to dull weather, or the oppesite, or when both the atmospheric pressure and the solar radiation are much disturbed either in the same or contrary directions —an accessien of fits invariably eccurs. I am led, therefere, to the inference that it is, after“ all, not the moon which directly affects the epileptic patients; but the change ef weather; and that it is the coincidence which not unfrequently occurs, of a change of weather with a change of moen, which has Jed the pepular mind into the notion of thenioon affecting hoth the weather and the epileptics.”’ Se, teo, of electricity:—“‘ I find that, without ene single exceptien, that these instances of augmented melancholic relapses haye occurred after considerable disturbance of atmospheric pressure and solar radiation, either in the same or oppesite directions. There is no deubt left on iny mind of the fact that such disturbances are always a¢companied hy, if not due to, sonie alteration in the electricity. I find too, thaton ten of these occasions I have records of thunder storms or -heavy gales, hut have no means of judging how far similar conditions might have existed at other times when these nnmistakahle manifestations of disturhance were too far off to be heard or seen, but not too distant to affect the health or to produce mental ixritation or depression. “T come, then, to the conclusion that, so far as my own observations go, any marked change of atmospheric pressure, solar radiation, or both, either in the same or contrary directions, is almost certain to be followed by increased number of fits among the epileptics, or by a development of mania or melancholia.” Piano Playing. It may interest musicians as well as scientific gentlemen, to learn that Professor Schmidt, a German, has fully shown that pianists are men in whom certain mental qualities are enormously developed, and that their physical force is something astounding. The Professor heard Herr Rubenstein play at a concert, and took it into his head—of course after he had gone home—to count the notes which Herr Rnbenstein had played by heart. The physiologist Haering has asserted that the profession of the pianist taxes the memory more severely than almost any other calling, and Professor Schmidt’a counting of the notes gives countenance to the assertion: for by it the fact was shown that in that one performance Herr Rnbenstein had used 62,990 notes. The Professor then used certain Austrian coins as a dynometer to test the pressure necessary to strike akey on Herr Rnbenstein’s piano, and found it to be equivalent to two ounces and a half, and so it was shown that the pianist in playing the 62,990 notes had used a force amounting to nearly 9414 ewt. The question arises, however, did he not exert a force far greater than this ? for no pianist—especially no German pianist—uses merely force enough to bring a sound from the wires, What Bulwer said of Beethoven’s *‘Storm”’ roused by the fell touch of a German pianist should be remembered, and would probably go to show that in that one piece alone Herr Rubenstein exerted force enongh tomovetheearthfrom its orbit, while theordinary playerat concerts in the Bewery, should he utilize for that purpose the foree he expends in one evening, might easily lug the world away far ou of the reach of Professor Plantamour’acomet, which threatens to destroy us all on the twelfth day of Augnst next.—The Week, ‘ Onrentarion oF Frurr Trees—In Les Mondes we are told why some fruit treesin the open air are weak, contorted, and stunted. Their defects are due to the neglect of the precaution of placing them, when transplanted, as they had stood inthe nursery ground. It is the effort of these troes to recover thcir original orientation which causes the contorted appearance. The Principle of the Least Action in Nature. Prof. Haughten, ef Triuity College, Dublin, hus recently delivered three very remarkahle lectures which have attracted no incensiderahle attentieu, and invelve the censideratien ef a very impertant principle, not only in mechanios but in nature generally. Dr. Haughton pointed out that the principle of ‘‘lonst action’’ has heen long known to mathematicians and physicists, hut that it applies not only to material and inanimate ebjects, hut ikewise to animated nature, both in construction and action genorally. The principle of least actien, as it is applied to mechanics and astronomy, censists in showing that a certain integral v, ds, must he the minimum, where v Is tha velocity at each point, and ds the element of its motion, and npon this principlo the most accurate calculations can be made, Not enly can astrenomical calculations be made upon the principle of least action, but in architecture the censtructien and very existence of certain ferms depends npen rigid adherence to this law; the censtructien, fer example, of a truly ‘‘self supporting elliptical equilibrate dome,’’ being an excellent illustration. Not only, hewever, dees this important principle overn the inanimate werld, hut itis clearly demonstrable that the museles ef animals are arranged, weighed, and huilt np in accordance with this law, and that the needful automatic actions of erganized heings follow the samu precept. 9 Thus the bee is shewn to censtrnet its cell npen this principle of ‘‘Icast action,’ Nature aiming. at the productien ef a maximnm quantity-‘of work, with a minimum ameuntof material; for, inasmuch as it “costa the hee the treuble to make wax,’’ se the construction of its cell, in a mathematical form which giyes the largest possible room for storage of feod with the smallest amount ef wax, saves the hee treuble in cellecting daily feed te suppert muscular strength, by enahling him to huild the best cell for the purpese with the smallest quantity of wax, and consequently with tbe least expenditure of force. Prohahly no more complete example ceuld have been given ef the fact that the hee’s instinct accords in its action with the least expenditure of force in the preduction ef the greatest beneficial results. ‘ Carrying out this principle, it is shown how the shape and attachment of various tendons, ligaments, and muscles, the position and structure of different joints in various animals, are so arranged that the principle of ‘“‘least action’ is observed throughout. It would be impossible in a brief netice to give examples of this adaptation of means to an end in the most economic way, 80 far as the conversation of force ia involved; hut the illustration wherein it is shown that the srrangements of the. spiral fihres in the heart is such that each fibre is made to do the maximum amount of work that its structure and arrangement are capable of, is especially beautiful. Thus we see that in the means employed by nature in briaging about the desired results there ig no waste of force or redundancy of material—a consideration which it is especially important for the mechanist to endeavor to: follow; and the lectures, shove referred to, bearing entirely upon this grand principle of least action in nature, are as well worthy of the consideration of the meohanical engineer as they are of the physiologist and physician.—Mich, Magazine. Moses, ann Monexn Scrence.—J. Elliot, formerly Professor in Queen's Cellege, Liverpool, says:—Geologists are not agreed about the num ber of hundreds or even of thonsands of millions of years which must have elapsed since the earth’a crust took a definite and palpable form; and the Biblical expositors are still less agreed as to what can be made with their days. The expositien given by the late Hugh Miller was at once worthy of modern science, and of the spirit of peetry which invests old legends. He divides the earlier gcological periods somewhat differently. He thinks he gets rid of the awkward difficulty of the supposed creation of light before that of the sun, and of the-absence of the snn and moon until the fourth day, and that he has established a closer agreement between the recerd of Moses and the revelationary science than has ever been suggested befere; while all the arguments and scarcasms launched against previous interpretations lose their force falling ou empty air. He.expresscs himself as welt aware of the difficulty of the task set before him; but trusts that ho has at least set up the framework of a sound structure, which the learning and ingennity of others may ultimately render more perfect in its details. Mr. Elliot has published a, small yolume in support of the above. Vartetres or Corors.—New tints of the various colors are ceustantly being discovered, even the two thousand shades which have been produced by the dyer’s art only indicate the effects that may he produced by a continual admixture of one tint with another, Among tHe forty or more shades of blue, scarlet, crimson and yellow, there are hues which were wholly unknown afew years ago, and for which it has been necessary to coin an arbitrary name, as they resemble nothing previously known. Every little while the popular fancy demands 2 new variation, and colors must be mixed and blend. ed until something etitirely novel ia produced. It may be pretty or otherwise—that is regarded as of comparatively little importance, provided it is the style,

April 27, 1872. ] SCIENTIFIC PRESS. 259 MECHANICAL Procress The Physical Properties of Steet. What ig steel? This is 4 point which has been munch discussed, but one upon which no conclusion has been reached, chiefly from tho fact that tbe meaning of the werd has never been clearly defiued. We have the series—pigiron, steel and wrought-iron; hut the exact limits of steel have avver yot heen defined. The province of stecl is sometimes enlarged, sometimes unreasonably circumscrihed. In its propertics and in its manufacture it is cemrisyd between tho liniits ef cast and wroagbtiron—but when it begias or whenit ends has never been defined. We condense the followiug from a work recently pahlished by M. L. Graner, ef the Paris Schooler Mines :— The elements which enter into the iren in its cenversion to steel are quite various, and ef such slight proportions, in relation to the mass of iren, tbat even their exact determinations are difficnlt. Thoso uncertainties render it extremely difficult, if not impessible, to preduce two Spacimens of stecl cxactly alike. The same difliculties, indecd render it equally difticult to prescrihe the exact limits ef the compositien of cast and wrought-iron. The same foreign elemonts are found in castiren, steel and wreught-irou—the difference hetween the differont members of the series is due aelely to varying relative propertiens, and chiefly to tbe single element of carhon. In each instance.this element is feund partly in inerely mechanical mixture and partly in intimate combiuatien or rather selution, . The large influence which carben excrts on iron may be inferred frem the fact that when iren isin acertain condition it requires only a fow tonths ef one per cent, to se medify it as te canse tho iren to pass into that which is unqualifiedly steel. Indeed Rivet appcars to think that the two are chemically identical—that stec] is a mere change in the melecular censtitution ef iron. There are certain eres knewn as ‘ores of stetl,’” which naturally preduce steel at a ccrtain stage ef fining, hut which hy still farther fining pass inte iron, Again this same iren gives steel ofa superior quality or cementation. All metals, in fact, undergo remarkable ebanges throngh the influence of exceedingly small proportions of various fereign snhstanees. Cepper is partly modified by the merest trace of oxygen, sulphur orlead, zinc and tin by ouly a few tenths of onc per cent. of iron; gold, according to Fremy, is rendered as brittle as antimony by one one-hundredths of one per cent. of lead or hismuth. According to Fremy nitrogen exercises an importsnt influence on iron—that steél is due not to the presence of carbon alone, but to a combination of iron with nilrocarburets. Careful analysis, however, shows that there is no fixed relation between the properties of nitrogen and carben in either-steel, or iron—and that the proportions of gitrogen are found to vary, while those of carbon are moro constant. Hence it has been supposed that the presence of the former is more or less accidental and unimportant. " Analysis shows that crude wrought-iron retains a part of all the elements present at the reduction of the orc in tbe blast furnace, and when steel is obtained from iron by fining, only those elements are completely eliminated which are readily oxidized, and here only a slight affinity for iron. Among those thus retained in greater or less proportions are carbon, aluminun, sulphur, phosphorus, silicon and copper. In reality, steel and wronght-iron arecompounds almost as cemplex as the crude pig which comes from the furnace—the proportions only are less. The proportions of carbon ia that metal have no absolute value as_regards its tempering power or the facility with which it may be drawn out. All the carbon in whiteirons and tempered steel is really combined or held in solution, while in gray iron and steel not tempered, a pertien of the carbon remains deposited in the form of graphite. . ; New Srorrine ron Ovsa10ns.—A material which has come quite extensively into use in Germany, asa suhstitute for hair in the stuffing of saddles, etc., consists of a mixture of flax seed and tallow. The advantage of this suhstitute consists primarily in the fact that the mobility of the seeds, one upon the other, prevents the-packing or settling in any particular place, as often happens .in saddles stuffed with hair, thus causing any given pressure to be readily and uniformly distributed over any given surface. The tallow serves the purpose, too, of keeping the leather flexible, and of preventing the 4bsorption of perspiration, protects tho article itself, and prevents the back of the animalfromhecoming galled. Animals with soros or galled spots en the back can be ridden with saddles stuffcd with this material without any great inoonvenience. The tallow algo has the effect of preventing the rotting of the flax sced, and is to be added in sufficient qnantity to give the requisite softness to the entire mass. An aromatic odor can be imparted by introducing oil of turpentine or camphor powder, and the durability considerably increased thereby. One part of tallow to from six to ten parts of flax seed may be used, accerding to the temperature. -or never last more than, three yeara. Band-saws for Cutting Large Timber. The substitatien ef the band suw, for the old style of reciprocating gig-saw, has preduced in many kinds ef weed werking & decided revelutien in the greater speed with which the werk may be performed. But few would suppose that the same principle conld bo adopted to advantago in sawing large legs frem the forests. This, however, has heen dene, and sawing machines ceustructed on this principle, capable of sawiug stuff ferty-eight fect in length, are for sale hy firins located both in Philadelphia and Londen. We de not knew that these havo yet heen nscd to an extent warranting the belief that they will prove mero nseful for ordinary sawmill werk, or for sawing timber which two circular saws, one above the ether, aro found capable of cuttiug into plank; but for various special purpesos, like the shaping ef ship timher and many others, this adaptation of the band-saw seems to possess much merit, aud will doubtless meet with extended faver, and may pessibly, admit ef modifications in its structure now untheught of. As concerns the propertiens ef the machine as mado for beavy sawing, we tind the diameter of tho wheels ovor which the saw passes ststed at six feet. These wheels are of wrenght iren, and are tightened against the saw to a tension of frem twe and one-half to ten tens, the upperniost wheel being vertically adjustablo a distance of twenty inches, and having its shaft, four inches in diameter, of steel. The shaft of the lower wheelis of wrought iren and is half an inch greater in diameter, and the jeurnal bexes of both are lined with hard hrass. The log carriage is commenly made with especial reference to the variety ef work for which the machine is designed, and of course varies accerding to circumstances. Ter resawing, fecd rolls are fitted to the apparatus. The preduction of large machines of this kind furnishes 2 goed example of what may be done in extending the utikhty of an invention merely by the application of mechanical judgment without any exercise of what can be properly calicd inventive gkill.—Cabinet Maker. Wrovont-rren Trzs.—An Englisb sciéntific jeurnal makes the fellowing interesting statements: The new railway sleeper which has lately been breught ferward in England, is Ukely, it is theught, to prove ef special advantage in seme respects, and particularly in tropical countries. The constructers of the various railways in India, for example, experience the greatest difficulty in making and maiutaining the permanent way. The dry rot, and those pests of India, the white ant, are terribly destructive. Sleepers sent from England creosotedand ‘‘pickled”’ are: not protected from the influence of the sun and vermin, and seldom It was necessary, therefore, to find a substitute impervious to the attacks of insects, which might be made perfect and ready to be laid down whenever and wherever required. The new sleeper is made up of a number of webs and plates of rolled iron, rivited together, and pierced with bolt-holes for the chairs. This is estimated to save about two-thirds of the labor of laying, and leaves but little work to be done by native jor other labor. The direct cost is found to be not more than one shilling each above that of the best wooden sleeper, and they are, calculated to last ten times as long in_ tropical countries, and three times as long in Europe. Many eminent engineers and railway constructors, who have examined these sleepers, express great confidence in their snperior adaption. Tun iron sea forts now in course of censtructien for the defence of the prominent naval stations of Great Britain, will, with the foundations, cost five milion dollars apiece. The iron shell of one of the forts for Spithead, near Portsmouth, has been shipped by rail for that harbor from the works of thé Whitworths, in the iron districts. This shell or skeleton weighs twenty-four hundred tons, and is to be fitted up with fifteen inch iron ‘plates twenty‘six feet in length. Each fort is to be seven hundred feet in circumferonce and two hundred and thirty feet high, They are to be armed with two tiers of.guns, one tier of twenty-four 600. pounders, and the other of trout 400 pounders. The guns, it is calculated, will pierce twelve inch iron ships at two thousand yards distance. Brown Tervr ror Iron anv SteeL.—Dissolve, in four parta of water, two parts of crystallized chloride of iron, two parts of chloride of antimony and one ae of gallie acid, and apply the solutien with a sponge or cloth to the article, and dry it in the air. Repeat this any number of times, according to’ the depth of color which it is desired to produce. Wash with water and dry, and finally rub the articles over with boiled linseed oil. The metal thus receives a brown tint and resists moisture. The chloride of antimony should be as little acid as possible. AntrFictAL Burnumo Stone isnow made with air chambers extending through the entire walls, rendering them airy in summer and winter, impervious to frost, and comparatively water and fire-proof. The coping grooves together, forming one continuoua solid stone, ever protecting the walls from the destroying elements of fire and water. The ‘‘ Coming Stone” for foundation is stronger than many natural stones, and for building purpeses— properly prepared—artificial bnilding stone is as little liable to disintegration as natural stones,

§clENTiFIC Progress. Atmospheric Influences on Lunacy. The Chaplain of the Hayward's Heath Lunatic Asylum, Brighton, Eng., appends to the lnst anunal repert of that institution, a very interesting paper ou the ‘Effects of Meteerological Fucts of Insanity.’’ A chart shews the rise and fall of lunacy for the last four years in relation to the changes of the atmosphere, the phases ef the moon, the amouut of ozone ii the nir, the rainfall, cte, One of the results ef this chart is fatal to the «vulgar error,’’ that gives its very uame to lunacy. ‘There is,” says Mr. Crallan, ‘very little difference to he discevered in patients’ fits hetwcen the avcrage numbers fer those duys on which the meon’s changes -occur, and for the days composing the rest of the menths, and what little differeuce there is in favor ef the days on which no such change occurs.”” itis very different with the sun. ‘I find,” says Mr. Crallan, ‘‘upen examinatien of 212 accessions ef fits, thut, with five exceptions, they have been preceded er accompanied hy . 8' considerahle altcrutien in atmospheric pressure er solar radiation, er beth; and here, 1 believe, lics the clue fer which I have been secking. Fer it scems to me tolerably clear that when a great fall or a great rise of the hurometer, or a great rise or fall of solar radiation eccurs—i.e., a decided change from bright to dull weather, or the oppesite, or when both the atmospheric pressure and the solar radiation are much disturbed either in the same or contrary directions —an accessien of fits invariably eccurs. I am led, therefere, to the inference that it is, after“ all, not the moon which directly affects the epileptic patients; but the change ef weather; and that it is the coincidence which not unfrequently occurs, of a change of weather with a change of moen, which has Jed the pepular mind into the notion of thenioon affecting hoth the weather and the epileptics.”’ Se, teo, of electricity:—“‘ I find that, without ene single exceptien, that these instances of augmented melancholic relapses haye occurred after considerable disturbance of atmospheric pressure and solar radiation, either in the same or oppesite directions. There is no deubt left on iny mind of the fact that such disturbances are always a¢companied hy, if not due to, sonie alteration in the electricity. I find too, thaton ten of these occasions I have records of thunder storms or -heavy gales, hut have no means of judging how far similar conditions might have existed at other times when these nnmistakahle manifestations of disturhance were too far off to be heard or seen, but not too distant to affect the health or to produce mental ixritation or depression. “T come, then, to the conclusion that, so far as my own observations go, any marked change of atmospheric pressure, solar radiation, or both, either in the same or contrary directions, is almost certain to be followed by increased number of fits among the epileptics, or by a development of mania or melancholia.” Piano Playing. It may interest musicians as well as scientific gentlemen, to learn that Professor Schmidt, a German, has fully shown that pianists are men in whom certain mental qualities are enormously developed, and that their physical force is something astounding. The Professor heard Herr Rubenstein play at a concert, and took it into his head—of course after he had gone home—to count the notes which Herr Rnbenstein had played by heart. The physiologist Haering has asserted that the profession of the pianist taxes the memory more severely than almost any other calling, and Professor Schmidt’a counting of the notes gives countenance to the assertion: for by it the fact was shown that in that one performance Herr Rnbenstein had used 62,990 notes. The Professor then used certain Austrian coins as a dynometer to test the pressure necessary to strike akey on Herr Rnbenstein’s piano, and found it to be equivalent to two ounces and a half, and so it was shown that the pianist in playing the 62,990 notes had used a force amounting to nearly 9414 ewt. The question arises, however, did he not exert a force far greater than this ? for no pianist—especially no German pianist—uses merely force enough to bring a sound from the wires, What Bulwer said of Beethoven’s *‘Storm”’ roused by the fell touch of a German pianist should be remembered, and would probably go to show that in that one piece alone Herr Rubenstein exerted force enongh tomovetheearthfrom its orbit, while theordinary playerat concerts in the Bewery, should he utilize for that purpose the foree he expends in one evening, might easily lug the world away far ou of the reach of Professor Plantamour’acomet, which threatens to destroy us all on the twelfth day of Augnst next.—The Week, ‘ Onrentarion oF Frurr Trees—In Les Mondes we are told why some fruit treesin the open air are weak, contorted, and stunted. Their defects are due to the neglect of the precaution of placing them, when transplanted, as they had stood inthe nursery ground. It is the effort of these troes to recover thcir original orientation which causes the contorted appearance. The Principle of the Least Action in Nature. Prof. Haughten, ef Triuity College, Dublin, hus recently delivered three very remarkahle lectures which have attracted no incensiderahle attentieu, and invelve the censideratien ef a very impertant principle, not only in mechanios but in nature generally. Dr. Haughton pointed out that the principle of ‘‘lonst action’’ has heen long known to mathematicians and physicists, hut that it applies not only to material and inanimate ebjects, hut ikewise to animated nature, both in construction and action genorally. The principle of least actien, as it is applied to mechanics and astronomy, censists in showing that a certain integral v, ds, must he the minimum, where v Is tha velocity at each point, and ds the element of its motion, and npon this principlo the most accurate calculations can be made, Not enly can astrenomical calculations be made upon the principle of least action, but in architecture the censtructien and very existence of certain ferms depends npen rigid adherence to this law; the censtructien, fer example, of a truly ‘‘self supporting elliptical equilibrate dome,’’ being an excellent illustration. Not only, hewever, dees this important principle overn the inanimate werld, hut itis clearly demonstrable that the museles ef animals are arranged, weighed, and huilt np in accordance with this law, and that the needful automatic actions of erganized heings follow the samu precept. 9 Thus the bee is shewn to censtrnet its cell npen this principle of ‘‘Icast action,’ Nature aiming. at the productien ef a maximnm quantity-‘of work, with a minimum ameuntof material; for, inasmuch as it “costa the hee the treuble to make wax,’’ se the construction of its cell, in a mathematical form which giyes the largest possible room for storage of feod with the smallest amount ef wax, saves the hee treuble in cellecting daily feed te suppert muscular strength, by enahling him to huild the best cell for the purpese with the smallest quantity of wax, and consequently with tbe least expenditure of force. Prohahly no more complete example ceuld have been given ef the fact that the hee’s instinct accords in its action with the least expenditure of force in the preduction ef the greatest beneficial results. ‘ Carrying out this principle, it is shown how the shape and attachment of various tendons, ligaments, and muscles, the position and structure of different joints in various animals, are so arranged that the principle of ‘“‘least action’ is observed throughout. It would be impossible in a brief netice to give examples of this adaptation of means to an end in the most economic way, 80 far as the conversation of force ia involved; hut the illustration wherein it is shown that the srrangements of the. spiral fihres in the heart is such that each fibre is made to do the maximum amount of work that its structure and arrangement are capable of, is especially beautiful. Thus we see that in the means employed by nature in briaging about the desired results there ig no waste of force or redundancy of material—a consideration which it is especially important for the mechanist to endeavor to: follow; and the lectures, shove referred to, bearing entirely upon this grand principle of least action in nature, are as well worthy of the consideration of the meohanical engineer as they are of the physiologist and physician.—Mich, Magazine. Moses, ann Monexn Scrence.—J. Elliot, formerly Professor in Queen's Cellege, Liverpool, says:—Geologists are not agreed about the num ber of hundreds or even of thonsands of millions of years which must have elapsed since the earth’a crust took a definite and palpable form; and the Biblical expositors are still less agreed as to what can be made with their days. The expositien given by the late Hugh Miller was at once worthy of modern science, and of the spirit of peetry which invests old legends. He divides the earlier gcological periods somewhat differently. He thinks he gets rid of the awkward difficulty of the supposed creation of light before that of the sun, and of the-absence of the snn and moon until the fourth day, and that he has established a closer agreement between the recerd of Moses and the revelationary science than has ever been suggested befere; while all the arguments and scarcasms launched against previous interpretations lose their force falling ou empty air. He.expresscs himself as welt aware of the difficulty of the task set before him; but trusts that ho has at least set up the framework of a sound structure, which the learning and ingennity of others may ultimately render more perfect in its details. Mr. Elliot has published a, small yolume in support of the above. Vartetres or Corors.—New tints of the various colors are ceustantly being discovered, even the two thousand shades which have been produced by the dyer’s art only indicate the effects that may he produced by a continual admixture of one tint with another, Among tHe forty or more shades of blue, scarlet, crimson and yellow, there are hues which were wholly unknown afew years ago, and for which it has been necessary to coin an arbitrary name, as they resemble nothing previously known. Every little while the popular fancy demands 2 new variation, and colors must be mixed and blend. ed until something etitirely novel ia produced. It may be pretty or otherwise—that is regarded as of comparatively little importance, provided it is the style,