Volume 35 (1877) (426 pages)

MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS. 403 December 29, 1877.] ce hd fay MecHANicaL ‘Progress. 3 Conversion of Steel. Some wecks since wo gave the method by which blister stcel is manufactured. As we find these notes on the metals they use aro quite avceptable to our roadera in tho machine shops, wo give anothor paragraph on tho conversiou of hlister stecl intu shear steel ond cast steel. This subject was recently discussed by Mr. J, G, Fairweather before the Scotch Society of Mechanical Engineers, aud we draw from his lectnre the following descriptions: 1n the conversion of blistered steel into tilted or shear steel several hars of blistered steel aro bouud together into a bundle whicb is raised to a welding heat ina forge and placed uuder the tilt-hammer. <A few blows soon weld the bars together, when tho hinding ring is knocked off, tho bundle reheated in the forge and hammered until it is reduced to a rectaugular bar of the required dimensious. Shear steel possesses a much more compact structure than the blister stevl, and its tenacity and dnetility have ‘been much improved by the tilting. If double shear stecl be roqnired, the tilted bar is broken, and the two pieces wolded into a single bar. Shear steel is commonly employed for tools, whicb are to possess considerable toughness without being extremoly hard; but its deficient hardness prevents it from taking a very high polish ora very keeu cdge, so that it will not serve for making the finest qualities of eutlery. The best varicty of steel used for these is made by melting the blister steel and casting it into ingots. In the conversion of blister steel into cast steel, tho blister steel is broken up into picces of a convenient size for packing close together and about 30 pounds or more of it are introduced into a crucible about two fect high, made of tire clay mixed with black lead, and provided with a closely-titting cover. Hard coke broken,. into small pieces is employed for heating the crucibles; the stcel is then introduced, the erucihles covered and the furnaco filled up with coke. When the steel is melted, the crucible is withdrawn, and its contents poured into a roctangular or octagonal mold of cast iron, which has been previonsly heated and placed in a vertical position. The fusion of the matetials in crucibles is the simplest and oldest mode of making steel, and it has been practiced by the Hindoos froma very remote period. In this process asmall quantity of wrought iron, from one-half to two pounds either in one lump or cut into pieces, is charged into a crucible of baked clay along with 10% of dried wood, and luted over, When the luting is dry, a dozen or two of these crucibles are stacked together in the form of a dome; a tire is lighted inside of this dome, and tho interstices filled with charcoal, which is also heaped over the top. The fire is urged by bellows, and in from 2! to 4 hours the operation is completed. A new arch of crucibles is then constructed, and so the process goes on niyht and day. The resultiug steel, called “‘wootz,” is obtained on breakin open the crucibles, as melted cakes; which are reheated for several hours to a temperature slightly helow their fusing point. They are afterwards drawn out under the hammer at a very low red heat, as the metal crumbles to piecos if an attempt is made to forge it ata high temperature. Prorit Lizs 1n THE SHop.—Some years ago, says the Railroad Gazette, when building locomotives was a very profitable business, a gentleman who had acqnired his training almost entirely in the commercial school abandoned his early occupation and emharked in the one referred to, which then promised to be more lucrative than bis old business. True to the instincts and traditions of his early calling, the first thing he did was to open an elaborate system of accounts, so as to keep a correct record of the cost of everything and the receipts and dishursements of the husiness. Soon after being launched in his new career, another gentleman, who had had a number of ycars’ experience in buildiug locomotives, called on his new professional brother, who took some pains to show his visitor bow skillfnlly he had organized his systein of accounts, and dilated at considerable lengtb on the fact that his prospects of doing a protitable busiuess were good, hevause, he said, he would know exactly what everythiug would cost. ‘‘Well,” his visitor replied, “if you can make money in tlle locomotive business by skillful book-kceping in your office, you will be doing what no oue ever succeeded tu doing before. If yon make money,” he continued, “‘ you must miake it in the shop, not in the office,” Tne Grear STEAM HAMMER AT CrucsoT.— The largest of the steam hammers at Creusot is something of a curiosity. It is formed of two cast-iron jambs each consisting of two parts, bolted together, and inclined to each other like the letter A. These jams support the entablature which carries the steain cylinder, and are joined by hroad plates of forged iron, The anvil is formed of 11 layers of cast-iron, planed and keyed together with special I-shaped pieces. The bed of masonry is 20 feet dcep, and between the ground and the anvil are placed crossed planks, horizontal and vertical, to form akind of elastic packing for it. The bed contains 100 eubic meters of cast-iron, 100 cubic meters of wood and 1,000 cubie meters of masonry. Four gas furnaces and four cranes, three carrying 100 tons and oue 150 tons, are in tho service of the haminer, the cranes tbemselves carryiuy thoir owu cugines. Tho hammer, furnace and cranes are placcd in a special shop built of iron, The hammer, which will havo a usoful effvct up to $0 tons, will forge stecl ingots of a weight of 100 or 120 tons, and it has been necessary to construct powerful tovls for the manipulation of theso masscs of metal. The great hammer at Krupp’s works at Essen is capable of dealing ouly with iugots of from 45 to 50 tous in weight, Ecrovean Optxtox of AMEnIVAN SKILL.— Prof. Reuleanx, of Berlin, who tbe fron Age ays goncrally regarded as the first of mechanical engineers in this conutry, if not in Europe, and ainanalso of broad accomplishments and excellent judgment in other brancbes of industry aud art, has just published in book forma serivs of letters upon the industrial position of the United States, written during a visit to tbe Contenuial exposition last year, in which he says tho wealth of our couutry im coal and iron is such as Europe furnishes no parallel for. In regard to machinery, it is fraukly admitted thattho United States has begun to occupy “one of the places in the first rank, in some Ll pale th2 very first.” In tool making, especially they ‘‘carry away the palm, not only at the exhibition, but seemingly everywhere.” To this eomplimeutary summing up Prof. Beuleaux joins an enumeratiou of the specific excellences ‘which distiuguishes American tools, whicb have got far beyond German products in this liue, and have even “hurled the English out of the saddle.” In this connoction particular reference is made to American weaving macbines, machines for working in wood, abaraice machines of all sorts, and especially to printing presses. Of our future development in industry and art, he maintains that there can be no doubt, because we have education, great mechanical skill, know how to use machinery to advantage, and have natural resources far superior to anything known in Europe. Ratiway Suovers.—W. 8. Huutington writing for the Ruilway Gazette says that a shovel may be considered hy some asa tool too insignificant to be worthy of mention, but there is no implement iu use in engineering work that outranks that simple and much abused tool in usefulness. And a shovel, like any other tool, should be of a kind adapted to the work it is todo, A light thin-bladed steel shovel may answer a good purpose in the molder’s room of a foundry, butit is next to useless for railroad work: and yet we bave hundreds of miles of road literally strewn with broken shovels, many of them not lasting to do a single day’s work, when they break and are throwu aside, and very likely another of the same worthless kind is taken in hand, to soon follow it against the fence, iuto the ditch, or into a pile behind the tool-house. It is a waste of money to buy the thin-hladed, hard steel shovels with the straps riveted to the hlade; they are dear at any price and are not intended for railroad work. The stan lard shovel for railroad work is kuown as No. 2, cast steel, and they will last until worn out; they never break. For many years a New England manufacturer supplied the demand for tbese shovels, but others are now producing those said to be equally as good. There is nothing gained in getting an inferior article of tools hecanse they are cheap, for in reality they are the most expensive, and a poor road caunot alford them. Emery Boirp.—Emery paper is considerably employed for cleaning and polishing metals, but all the kinds in use hitherto have the great disadvantage of not retaining an equal efficiency. The fresh parts bite too much, and the paper itself soon gets worn through in places. Emery on linen bas been tried, bnt without much success. The emery paper recommended herewith is not a pasteboard with emery on both sides, hnt a board in which emery enters as a constituent part. Fine and uniform card board pulp must be procured, and from one-half to one-third its weight of emery powder thoroughly mixed with it, so that the emery may be equally distributed. The mass is then poured out into cakes of from one to ten inches in thickuess. They must not be pressed hard, however, but allowed to retain a medium pliability. This paper will adapt itself to the forms of the articles, and will serve until completely worn out. German ALLoys ror Cocks.—It will be of interest to Americans engaged in the production of brass cocks and the like to know something ahout what is considered in Germany good practice in the use of alloys. After a long discussion, the Society of Mechanical Engineers of Vienua have decided upon the following alloys as best suited for cocks and valves for machinery: No. 2. No 3, Copper.. 83 80 Tin. W 18 Zine ee 2 Lead ce a8 Tron 20 ss 100 100 100 They belicve that objects just cast, and still red hot, may be improved much in quality by rapidly cooling with water. The grain becomes finer, and the alloy acquires a greater teuacity and hardness. Especially alloy No. 2 seems to be favorably affected by this operation. e 6 SCIENTIFIC ‘PRocress. Air and Altitude, A memoir on the temperature and humidity of the air at differont hours, by Dr. H. E. Haniberg, based on observatious made by him duriug the summer of 1875, at hights varying from two inches to 22 feet above the grouud, was published receutly iu the transactions of the Royal Society of Sciences at Upsal. ‘The memoir is summarized in Nature, and is a valnablo one, and is of interest to moro than the mere meteorologist, it being evident that the inquiry is so handled as to bring it into close connection with such difficult questions as_connection currents in the freo atmosphere and tho diffusion of vapor throngh the air. Inclear weather the temperaturo of tho air nearest the surfaco was lower than that above it from two to throo hours before suuset to at least two to threo hours after sunrise, At all the six hights the temperature fell to tbo minimum at the same hour—viz., about 3 a. M.; but while it continued from this time to rise steadily at all the hights, the lowest temperature continued to be observed in the strata nearest the grouud till sevoral hours after sunrise. From this remarkable result Dr. Hamberg concludes that the increase of tomperature in the lower strata of the air in the early part of the forenoon is not an immediate and direct consequence of the heating of the ground, but is rather to be attributed to absorbtion by the air, or, more strictly, by its aqueous vapor, of the heat received from the sun’s rays or reflected from the ground. Over uneven gronnd covered with vegetation the temperature is generally higher over those parts of the field which rise above the general level. Thus even slight elevations of only oue or two feet have the air immediately resting on them often two degrees higher or more, whilst, on the other hand, a trench or depression one or two feet below the general level has the air resting on it two degrees or more lower than the air over the level portion of the field, a result of considerable practical importance in agriculture and horticulture. The latent heat set free on the formation of dew appears from the observations clearly to retard the lowering of the temperature, but not to the extent which might have been expected. When, on the deposition of dew, the temperature of the air near the surface bas fallen below 32°, as soou as the dew is congealed into boar frost, the temperature of the lower stratum of tbe air in contact with the ground instantly rises to 32°; but at the same time the temperature of the air higher up steadily remains lower than 32°, The absolute humidity of the air on clear nights, on which no dew is deposited, decreases from the ground upward, just as happens during the day; but, on the other hand, with dew the humidity is least nearest the ground, and increases with the bight, aud this influence of dew, in diminishing the humidity, extends upward to at least 22 feet, the hight to which the observations were carried. Sinco his observations clearly show that the absolute humidity begins in the evening to diminish near the ground, before any dew is observed to he deposited, and also diminishes at all hights on those nights during which no dew whatever is formed, Dr. Hambherg is of opinion that tbe diminution of the humidity of the air during night is to be sought for in other physical causes than the deposition of dew. AMERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS ‘TO SciENCE.—At the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society, Nov. 30th, the President, Sir Josepb Hooker, after a detailed examination of recent scientific investigations. in America, said; “I must not close my. notices of some of the labors of our scientific brethren in the United States without expressing my admiration of the spirit and manner in which the Government and people have co-operated in making kuown the physical and biological features of their country, and my conviction that the results whicb they have given to the world are—whetber for magnitude or importance—greater of their kind than have been accomplished within the same time by any people or pose Taneny in older continents. How great would now be our knowledge of the climate and natural features of India bad its trigonometrical or revenue surveys been carried out in the same catholic spirit; and what scientilic literature can England and ber colonies show to compare with that of United-States surveys?” Virauiry or Sreps.—Van Tieghlen contributes a paper to L’Annuales des Sciences Naturelles on the reason why some seeds retain vitality longer than others. It is a question wholly of the condition of the albumen. in certaiu oily sceds the albumen changes its character before the plant is ready to germinate, and then the sprouting plant feeds on just what it finds, and which may or may not be nutritious; but in other cases the plant feeds directly on the albuminous matter, or, in other words, on its endosperm. There are some plants which have no albumen, and these are so constituted that they can get their nourishment directly from the soil. In old albuminous seeds that fail to show the reason ig that the albumen has all or nearly all been chemically changed, and there is nothing left to give the little germ support till it is able to take care of itself. Why ex-albuminous seeds perish is not made clear. Tus Merric System.—Nearly every other nation of Europe having led the way Russia is about adopting the metric weights aud measures. The special committee which is sitting at St. Petersburg, at tho headquarters of the Russian {import Tec nicsl Society, have not only come to the conclusion that such an innovation would be useful, but have also empbatically declarcd that tho present is the fitting moment for tho introduction of the metric system. They think that tbe change ought to be aecomplished within two years. It is a remarkablo fact that Americans, with all their boasted readiness to adopt labor-saving inventions, aud having led the world in use of a decimal currency, should be ono of the very last uations of the globe to adopt what Johu Quincy Adains, in his official report, pronounces tho greatest invention of human ingenuity since that of printing, and a greater labor-saver than steam. Certain persons have strenuously urged that the adoption of the international weights and moasures would be a source of great iuconvenienco and expense to the machinists and manufacturers. ‘The advocates of the system, having made inquirics of machinists and manufacturers in varions countries of Europe, reply that the objection is one of theory and not of fact, as those who have actually tried the experiment testify. As the old machinory wore out it was replaced with the new, and a little time being taken tho greatly dreaded confusion and expense were largely obviated. Bopy axp Mixp.—Some points in the relation of the mind to the body are touched upon in a suggestive way by Prof. Nageli, of Muuicb, in his recent lecture on the ‘‘Limits of Natural Knowledge,” delivered at the Munich meeting of the Germau Scientific Associatiou, and which supplements the recent utterauces of Virchow and Heckel. ‘The human mind,” he says, ‘‘is nothing else but the highest development upon our earth of the mental pbenometa which move and animate nature everywhere, But it is not the product of secretion of the eerebral substance, Assuch it would be without further influence upon the brain, jnst as the secreted gall is of no further signification for the liver. n the contrary, sensation and consciousness have their firm seat in the brain, with which they are indissolubly united and in which, by their intervention, new conceptions are formed and converted into actions, Just as the atone would not fall down if it did not feel the presence of the earth, so the trampled worn would not wrigglo if it had no sensation, and the brain would not act reasonably if it bad no consciousness.” Parsnip PECULIARITIES, —At the recent mecting of the French Association for the Advancement of Scieuce, M. Corenwinder, who has long been engaged in researches upon tbe various alimentary roots, brought up a report on his investigations on the composition of parsnips, with which he has been cbiefly occupied during the current year, He gives the chemical composition of the root as follows: MWEUOOB, onoo -co79acosanannancRcconnacunsmnsneD 79.450 Nitrogenous substances 2.363 Cellulose, pectose, cte. 11.197 Crystallizable sugar. . 4.570 Gtucose....+ 0.320 Starch.... 2.075 Mineral matter.. 1.025 UWF Resa ohh honnonosoncascadess Banogend 100.000 From this analysis it appears that tbe parsnips contain an amount of crystallizable sugar by no means to be despised, especially as the root never gets frozen, and can be allowed to remain in the gronnd until wanted, even in the severest winters. The proportion of phosphates is abundant, and that of the potass salta collectively actually enormous, which facts should encourage a far more general cultivation of this vegetable. With regard to the amount of nitrogenous matter present, M. Corenwinder finds that it is far larger in the parsnip than in any other of the various roots be has analyzed. New Fossis rrom THE ALEUTIAN IsLANDS,— At a recent meeting of the California Geological Society, carboniferous fossils were exhibited from the Aleutian islands, where they were associated with coal. The fossils were referred to Mr. 8. A. Miller, of Cincinnati, a well-known paleontologist, for examination, from whom the following letter was received: ‘The fossils from Sitka came duly to hand. The Productus is, so far as I am able te determine, a new species. Ta form it resembles P. horridus of the Permian group in Europe, the surface lining alone distinguishing it. Productus horridas has a deep mesial depression and fine coucentrie markings, This species has the deep mesial depression, fine longitudinal lines, without concentric markings, I would not hesitate to describe it if a figure could accompany the description, but I am opposed to descrihing a fossil without illustrating the description. If our Society of Natural History does as I expect it to do soou, I may he able to publish with proper figures. I would like, however, to have the other valve, though it is not essential, As the genus Productus is unknown later than the Permian, you can he assured that this fossil is of carhoniferous age.” SS ——— Ineeppep Acorns.—The St. Helona Star says: John Gillam informs us that in getting out grape sticks at bis place up the valley, he lately cut a redwood trec, seven feet through and 230 feet long, in which, at a distance of 18 inches from the exterior, he found deposits of acorns, evidently stored by birds long ago and grown in by a foot and a half of solid wood.

MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS. 403 December 29, 1877.] ce hd fay MecHANicaL ‘Progress. 3 Conversion of Steel. Some wecks since wo gave the method by which blister stcel is manufactured. As we find these notes on the metals they use aro quite avceptable to our roadera in tho machine shops, wo give anothor paragraph on tho conversiou of hlister stecl intu shear steel ond cast steel. This subject was recently discussed by Mr. J, G, Fairweather before the Scotch Society of Mechanical Engineers, aud we draw from his lectnre the following descriptions: 1n the conversion of blistered steel into tilted or shear steel several hars of blistered steel aro bouud together into a bundle whicb is raised to a welding heat ina forge and placed uuder the tilt-hammer. <A few blows soon weld the bars together, when tho hinding ring is knocked off, tho bundle reheated in the forge and hammered until it is reduced to a rectaugular bar of the required dimensious. Shear steel possesses a much more compact structure than the blister stevl, and its tenacity and dnetility have ‘been much improved by the tilting. If double shear stecl be roqnired, the tilted bar is broken, and the two pieces wolded into a single bar. Shear steel is commonly employed for tools, whicb are to possess considerable toughness without being extremoly hard; but its deficient hardness prevents it from taking a very high polish ora very keeu cdge, so that it will not serve for making the finest qualities of eutlery. The best varicty of steel used for these is made by melting the blister steel and casting it into ingots. In the conversion of blister steel into cast steel, tho blister steel is broken up into picces of a convenient size for packing close together and about 30 pounds or more of it are introduced into a crucible about two fect high, made of tire clay mixed with black lead, and provided with a closely-titting cover. Hard coke broken,. into small pieces is employed for heating the crucibles; the stcel is then introduced, the erucihles covered and the furnaco filled up with coke. When the steel is melted, the crucible is withdrawn, and its contents poured into a roctangular or octagonal mold of cast iron, which has been previonsly heated and placed in a vertical position. The fusion of the matetials in crucibles is the simplest and oldest mode of making steel, and it has been practiced by the Hindoos froma very remote period. In this process asmall quantity of wrought iron, from one-half to two pounds either in one lump or cut into pieces, is charged into a crucible of baked clay along with 10% of dried wood, and luted over, When the luting is dry, a dozen or two of these crucibles are stacked together in the form of a dome; a tire is lighted inside of this dome, and tho interstices filled with charcoal, which is also heaped over the top. The fire is urged by bellows, and in from 2! to 4 hours the operation is completed. A new arch of crucibles is then constructed, and so the process goes on niyht and day. The resultiug steel, called “‘wootz,” is obtained on breakin open the crucibles, as melted cakes; which are reheated for several hours to a temperature slightly helow their fusing point. They are afterwards drawn out under the hammer at a very low red heat, as the metal crumbles to piecos if an attempt is made to forge it ata high temperature. Prorit Lizs 1n THE SHop.—Some years ago, says the Railroad Gazette, when building locomotives was a very profitable business, a gentleman who had acqnired his training almost entirely in the commercial school abandoned his early occupation and emharked in the one referred to, which then promised to be more lucrative than bis old business. True to the instincts and traditions of his early calling, the first thing he did was to open an elaborate system of accounts, so as to keep a correct record of the cost of everything and the receipts and dishursements of the husiness. Soon after being launched in his new career, another gentleman, who had had a number of ycars’ experience in buildiug locomotives, called on his new professional brother, who took some pains to show his visitor bow skillfnlly he had organized his systein of accounts, and dilated at considerable lengtb on the fact that his prospects of doing a protitable busiuess were good, hevause, he said, he would know exactly what everythiug would cost. ‘‘Well,” his visitor replied, “if you can make money in tlle locomotive business by skillful book-kceping in your office, you will be doing what no oue ever succeeded tu doing before. If yon make money,” he continued, “‘ you must miake it in the shop, not in the office,” Tne Grear STEAM HAMMER AT CrucsoT.— The largest of the steam hammers at Creusot is something of a curiosity. It is formed of two cast-iron jambs each consisting of two parts, bolted together, and inclined to each other like the letter A. These jams support the entablature which carries the steain cylinder, and are joined by hroad plates of forged iron, The anvil is formed of 11 layers of cast-iron, planed and keyed together with special I-shaped pieces. The bed of masonry is 20 feet dcep, and between the ground and the anvil are placed crossed planks, horizontal and vertical, to form akind of elastic packing for it. The bed contains 100 eubic meters of cast-iron, 100 cubic meters of wood and 1,000 cubie meters of masonry. Four gas furnaces and four cranes, three carrying 100 tons and oue 150 tons, are in tho service of the haminer, the cranes tbemselves carryiuy thoir owu cugines. Tho hammer, furnace and cranes are placcd in a special shop built of iron, The hammer, which will havo a usoful effvct up to $0 tons, will forge stecl ingots of a weight of 100 or 120 tons, and it has been necessary to construct powerful tovls for the manipulation of theso masscs of metal. The great hammer at Krupp’s works at Essen is capable of dealing ouly with iugots of from 45 to 50 tous in weight, Ecrovean Optxtox of AMEnIVAN SKILL.— Prof. Reuleanx, of Berlin, who tbe fron Age ays goncrally regarded as the first of mechanical engineers in this conutry, if not in Europe, and ainanalso of broad accomplishments and excellent judgment in other brancbes of industry aud art, has just published in book forma serivs of letters upon the industrial position of the United States, written during a visit to tbe Contenuial exposition last year, in which he says tho wealth of our couutry im coal and iron is such as Europe furnishes no parallel for. In regard to machinery, it is fraukly admitted thattho United States has begun to occupy “one of the places in the first rank, in some Ll pale th2 very first.” In tool making, especially they ‘‘carry away the palm, not only at the exhibition, but seemingly everywhere.” To this eomplimeutary summing up Prof. Beuleaux joins an enumeratiou of the specific excellences ‘which distiuguishes American tools, whicb have got far beyond German products in this liue, and have even “hurled the English out of the saddle.” In this connoction particular reference is made to American weaving macbines, machines for working in wood, abaraice machines of all sorts, and especially to printing presses. Of our future development in industry and art, he maintains that there can be no doubt, because we have education, great mechanical skill, know how to use machinery to advantage, and have natural resources far superior to anything known in Europe. Ratiway Suovers.—W. 8. Huutington writing for the Ruilway Gazette says that a shovel may be considered hy some asa tool too insignificant to be worthy of mention, but there is no implement iu use in engineering work that outranks that simple and much abused tool in usefulness. And a shovel, like any other tool, should be of a kind adapted to the work it is todo, A light thin-bladed steel shovel may answer a good purpose in the molder’s room of a foundry, butit is next to useless for railroad work: and yet we bave hundreds of miles of road literally strewn with broken shovels, many of them not lasting to do a single day’s work, when they break and are throwu aside, and very likely another of the same worthless kind is taken in hand, to soon follow it against the fence, iuto the ditch, or into a pile behind the tool-house. It is a waste of money to buy the thin-hladed, hard steel shovels with the straps riveted to the hlade; they are dear at any price and are not intended for railroad work. The stan lard shovel for railroad work is kuown as No. 2, cast steel, and they will last until worn out; they never break. For many years a New England manufacturer supplied the demand for tbese shovels, but others are now producing those said to be equally as good. There is nothing gained in getting an inferior article of tools hecanse they are cheap, for in reality they are the most expensive, and a poor road caunot alford them. Emery Boirp.—Emery paper is considerably employed for cleaning and polishing metals, but all the kinds in use hitherto have the great disadvantage of not retaining an equal efficiency. The fresh parts bite too much, and the paper itself soon gets worn through in places. Emery on linen bas been tried, bnt without much success. The emery paper recommended herewith is not a pasteboard with emery on both sides, hnt a board in which emery enters as a constituent part. Fine and uniform card board pulp must be procured, and from one-half to one-third its weight of emery powder thoroughly mixed with it, so that the emery may be equally distributed. The mass is then poured out into cakes of from one to ten inches in thickuess. They must not be pressed hard, however, but allowed to retain a medium pliability. This paper will adapt itself to the forms of the articles, and will serve until completely worn out. German ALLoys ror Cocks.—It will be of interest to Americans engaged in the production of brass cocks and the like to know something ahout what is considered in Germany good practice in the use of alloys. After a long discussion, the Society of Mechanical Engineers of Vienua have decided upon the following alloys as best suited for cocks and valves for machinery: No. 2. No 3, Copper... 83 80 Tin. W 18 Zine ee 2 Lead ce a8 Tron 20 ss 100 100 100 They belicve that objects just cast, and still red hot, may be improved much in quality by rapidly cooling with water. The grain becomes finer, and the alloy acquires a greater teuacity and hardness. Especially alloy No. 2 seems to be favorably affected by this operation. e 6 SCIENTIFIC ‘PRocress.

Air and Altitude, A memoir on the temperature and humidity of the air at differont hours, by Dr. H. E. Haniberg, based on observatious made by him duriug the summer of 1875, at hights varying from two inches to 22 feet above the grouud, was published receutly iu the transactions of the Royal Society of Sciences at Upsal. ‘The memoir is summarized in Nature, and is a valnablo one, and is of interest to moro than the mere meteorologist, it being evident that the inquiry is so handled as to bring it into close connection with such difficult questions as_connection currents in the freo atmosphere and tho diffusion of vapor throngh the air. Inclear weather the temperaturo of tho air nearest the surfaco was lower than that above it from two to throo hours before suuset to at least two to threo hours after sunrise, At all the six hights the temperature fell to tbo minimum at the same hour—viz., about 3 a. M.; but while it continued from this time to rise steadily at all the hights, the lowest temperature continued to be observed in the strata nearest the grouud till sevoral hours after sunrise. From this remarkable result Dr. Hamberg concludes that the increase of tomperature in the lower strata of the air in the early part of the forenoon is not an immediate and direct consequence of the heating of the ground, but is rather to be attributed to absorbtion by the air, or, more strictly, by its aqueous vapor, of the heat received from the sun’s rays or reflected from the ground. Over uneven gronnd covered with vegetation the temperature is generally higher over those parts of the field which rise above the general level. Thus even slight elevations of only oue or two feet have the air immediately resting on them often two degrees higher or more, whilst, on the other hand, a trench or depression one or two feet below the general level has the air resting on it two degrees or more lower than the air over the level portion of the field, a result of considerable practical importance in agriculture and horticulture. The latent heat set free on the formation of dew appears from the observations clearly to retard the lowering of the temperature, but not to the extent which might have been expected. When, on the deposition of dew, the temperature of the air near the surface bas fallen below 32°, as soou as the dew is congealed into boar frost, the temperature of the lower stratum of tbe air in contact with the ground instantly rises to 32°; but at the same time the temperature of the air higher up steadily remains lower than 32°, The absolute humidity of the air on clear nights, on which no dew is deposited, decreases from the ground upward, just as happens during the day; but, on the other hand, with dew the humidity is least nearest the ground, and increases with the bight, aud this influence of dew, in diminishing the humidity, extends upward to at least 22 feet, the hight to which the observations were carried. Sinco his observations clearly show that the absolute humidity begins in the evening to diminish near the ground, before any dew is observed to he deposited, and also diminishes at all hights on those nights during which no dew whatever is formed, Dr. Hambherg is of opinion that tbe diminution of the humidity of the air during night is to be sought for in other physical causes than the deposition of dew. AMERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS ‘TO SciENCE.—At the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society, Nov. 30th, the President, Sir Josepb Hooker, after a detailed examination of recent scientific investigations. in America, said; “I must not close my. notices of some of the labors of our scientific brethren in the United States without expressing my admiration of the spirit and manner in which the Government and people have co-operated in making kuown the physical and biological features of their country, and my conviction that the results whicb they have given to the world are—whetber for magnitude or importance—greater of their kind than have been accomplished within the same time by any people or pose Taneny in older continents. How great would now be our knowledge of the climate and natural features of India bad its trigonometrical or revenue surveys been carried out in the same catholic spirit; and what scientilic literature can England and ber colonies show to compare with that of United-States surveys?” Virauiry or Sreps.—Van Tieghlen contributes a paper to L’Annuales des Sciences Naturelles on the reason why some seeds retain vitality longer than others. It is a question wholly of the condition of the albumen. in certaiu oily sceds the albumen changes its character before the plant is ready to germinate, and then the sprouting plant feeds on just what it finds, and which may or may not be nutritious; but in other cases the plant feeds directly on the albuminous matter, or, in other words, on its endosperm. There are some plants which have no albumen, and these are so constituted that they can get their nourishment directly from the soil. In old albuminous seeds that fail to show the reason ig that the albumen has all or nearly all been chemically changed, and there is nothing left to give the little germ support till it is able to take care of itself. Why ex-albuminous seeds perish is not made clear. Tus Merric System.—Nearly every other nation of Europe having led the way Russia is about adopting the metric weights aud measures. The special committee which is sitting at St. Petersburg, at tho headquarters of the Russian {import Tec nicsl Society, have not only come to the conclusion that such an innovation would be useful, but have also empbatically declarcd that tho present is the fitting moment for tho introduction of the metric system. They think that tbe change ought to be aecomplished within two years. It is a remarkablo fact that Americans, with all their boasted readiness to adopt labor-saving inventions, aud having led the world in use of a decimal currency, should be ono of the very last uations of the globe to adopt what Johu Quincy Adains, in his official report, pronounces tho greatest invention of human ingenuity since that of printing, and a greater labor-saver than steam. Certain persons have strenuously urged that the adoption of the international weights and moasures would be a source of great iuconvenienco and expense to the machinists and manufacturers. ‘The advocates of the system, having made inquirics of machinists and manufacturers in varions countries of Europe, reply that the objection is one of theory and not of fact, as those who have actually tried the experiment testify. As the old machinory wore out it was replaced with the new, and a little time being taken tho greatly dreaded confusion and expense were largely obviated. Bopy axp Mixp.—Some points in the relation of the mind to the body are touched upon in a suggestive way by Prof. Nageli, of Muuicb, in his recent lecture on the ‘‘Limits of Natural Knowledge,” delivered at the Munich meeting of the Germau Scientific Associatiou, and which supplements the recent utterauces of Virchow and Heckel. ‘The human mind,” he says, ‘‘is nothing else but the highest development upon our earth of the mental pbenometa which move and animate nature everywhere, But it is not the product of secretion of the eerebral substance, Assuch it would be without further influence upon the brain, jnst as the secreted gall is of no further signification for the liver. n the contrary, sensation and consciousness have their firm seat in the brain, with which they are indissolubly united and in which, by their intervention, new conceptions are formed and converted into actions, Just as the atone would not fall down if it did not feel the presence of the earth, so the trampled worn would not wrigglo if it had no sensation, and the brain would not act reasonably if it bad no consciousness.” Parsnip PECULIARITIES, —At the recent mecting of the French Association for the Advancement of Scieuce, M. Corenwinder, who has long been engaged in researches upon tbe various alimentary roots, brought up a report on his investigations on the composition of parsnips, with which he has been cbiefly occupied during the current year, He gives the chemical composition of the root as follows: MWEUOOB, onoo -co79acosanannancRcconnacunsmnsneD 79.450 Nitrogenous substances 2.363 Cellulose, pectose, cte.. 11.197 Crystallizable sugar. . 4.570 Gtucose........+ 0.320 Starch........ 2.075 Mineral matter... 1.025 UWF Resa ohh honnonosoncascadess Banogend 100.000 From this analysis it appears that tbe parsnips contain an amount of crystallizable sugar by no means to be despised, especially as the root never gets frozen, and can be allowed to remain in the gronnd until wanted, even in the severest winters. The proportion of phosphates is abundant, and that of the potass salta collectively actually enormous, which facts should encourage a far more general cultivation of this vegetable. With regard to the amount of nitrogenous matter present, M. Corenwinder finds that it is far larger in the parsnip than in any other of the various roots be has analyzed. New Fossis rrom THE ALEUTIAN IsLANDS,— At a recent meeting of the California Geological Society, carboniferous fossils were exhibited from the Aleutian islands, where they were associated with coal. The fossils were referred to Mr. 8. A. Miller, of Cincinnati, a well-known paleontologist, for examination, from whom the following letter was received: ‘The fossils from Sitka came duly to hand. The Productus is, so far as I am able te determine, a new species. Ta form it resembles P. horridus of the Permian group in Europe, the surface lining alone distinguishing it. Productus horridas has a deep mesial depression and fine coucentrie markings, This species has the deep mesial depression, fine longitudinal lines, without concentric markings, I would not hesitate to describe it if a figure could accompany the description, but I am opposed to descrihing a fossil without illustrating the description. If our Society of Natural History does as I expect it to do soou, I may he able to publish with proper figures. I would like, however, to have the other valve, though it is not essential, As the genus Productus is unknown later than the Permian, you can he assured that this fossil is of carhoniferous age.” SS ——— Ineeppep Acorns.—The St. Helona Star says: John Gillam informs us that in getting out grape sticks at bis place up the valley, he lately cut a redwood trec, seven feet through and 230 feet long, in which, at a distance of 18 inches from the exterior, he found deposits of acorns, evidently stored by birds long ago and grown in by a foot and a half of solid wood.