Volume 35 (1877) (426 pages)

August 11, 1877.] MINIM.. ANDsSCIENTIFIC PRESS 83 Jy = > MecHanicat Procress. Cold-Punched Nuts, Our English friends were quite surprised at tbe Aimerican nuts slrown at the Centeunial and they are free to express their appreciation of our progress in this lino of mannfacture, A volume of the reports of British Centennial Commissioners has recently been suhmitted to Parliament, which embraces the following interesting reference to the novelty of coldpunched nnts: ‘The articles shown consisted chietly of nnts or other similarly perforated specimens ; all wero of remarkable beauty, and were given away in great profnsion, These nuts had two peeutiaritics—they were of inordinate depth; and showed clearly that they had been punched cold, Visitors, however, did uot hail this new fact in practical science; they said it was an imposstbility fora 3-incl: punch, however good the qnality of steol, to penctrate through 1¥ inelt of cold iron; that, whatever might be the explanation, a pnnch of that diameter eould not do it withont being broken or crippled. : “In timo the secret leakod out, for it was no imposture. ‘The makers, it pnuching, tako advantage of the tinid preperty of solid cold iron or steel, by introdneing the clement of time into the performance of tho operation, giving to the pnoch only such a load of pressnro as it can comfortably sustain, then giving np the reins te natnre, when the instrninent penetrates at a rate dependent ou, and in prop-rtion to, the tlnidity of tho mass, Hitherto the philosopher and the experimentalist have been writing npon the flew of solids, no one heeding ,; but here at tho Centeunial was the natural law imado practieally available ; and, nnintportant as it may scem, yet vast issues are bata np thercin. The seed there sown in thonsands ef thinking minds will hring forth many other applications in metal working, anl will lead te the performanco of many operations that are deemed impossible at tbe present time,” Wat 1s Negpep to Drive aN Exuixe,— People are willing to grant the locomotive engineer a good share of courage to stand firm in his perilous position, He also has need of the fine senses, We read an article, written by an engine driver in an Mnglish paper, from which we qnote as follows: A locomotive foot-plate is the only place in which practical illustrations can ho obtained of every way iu which it is possible for an engino and engine-man to go wrong, During the time an engine is under steam with a train, everything seen, heard, felt and smelt in connection with it is capable of conveying iuforimation to the driver—of teach. ing him that the secret of successful locomotive driving is close observation, and that no man can on any other terms handle the regulator with confidence. On tbe foot-plate the eye is taught or trained to distinguish colors at a distanes; the ear learns to detect the slightest variation in tbe beats of the exbaust. Cognivant of a daily deterioration of a piston ring, it learns alse to distingnish the difference between a valve and a piston ‘ blow,” an axlobox knock from a knock in the journal. The human frame learns to decide what oseillations and pitehings are dne to a defective spring and what are due to a defective permanent way; the nose becomes, from experience acquired under all kinds of circumstances, very sensitive, so that it can detect the rising of firo, either in the lagging of the hoiler from a spark, or in the axle-box from friction, even before any mischief worth mentioning is accomplished. It is under steam and speed combined that the ‘coral reefs” and ‘‘sand banks” on railways cau be seen and marked upon the driver's chart. There are upon all lines trap-points, trap-sidings and gullets put in for the safety of the public, which, if an engine driver is thoroughly acquainted with them, are as surely capable of wrecking an engiue as is a hidden rock a stately ship. The rank aud value of every locomotive engiueer is exactly in proportiou to the labor and study he has bestowed on the matter. KEEPING Our Dust anp CinpeRs,—We read that the Rev. A. LeRoy’s simple attachment to railroad coaches, for the purpose of excluding dust and cinders when the windows are open, is now nudergoing a test on the Wagner drawingroom cars of the Central road. On a recent trip during a storm it was found that the apparatus excluded rain as well as dust, an outward current from the car keeping all drops from those sitting near the window. The invention is simply a series of slats less than four inches iu width attached to the sides of each window. When notin use they are folded compactly against the sash. The slats on the front side of tbe sashes are let down when the train is running and those in the rear are closed. So perfectly does it do its work, saysa New York paper, that a handkerchief held in the lap before an open window will not show a speck of dust or cinders in a ride of many miles. Cray Trz,—A railroad tie made of potter's clay is the patented inspiratioa of Mr. G. W. Chaadler, of Boone, Iowa. ‘T’be clay seemingly a rather yielding material in its natural state, is to be ‘‘burned hard as flint.” in scctions about a foot in leagth, which will then be holted together with iron, The result seems to be the equivalent of stone, althongh stone sleepers were long ago discarded. Weighing the Strength of Wire. The prosceution of the werk on the Brooklyn Lridge, is calling out several special devices. One is a testing machine for the strength of the, wire, and it is adapted to test up toa tension of 10,000 pounds, It was made hy Messrs. Rielle Bros., of Philadelphia. Among the general (ales of the design, which the /ron Age thinks worth noticing, are the keeping the levers in position so as to resist a shock qnickly without injury, aud with little wear; while very seasitive it is easily and qnickly controlled, whether aaa hy steam or hand. A specimen can tested withont cntting it from the coil, aud the lengtb ef the test piece may he ouo foot or tive aecording asa long or short piece is nceded, No preparation is needed to hold tbe wire, as it is introduced at once directly to the eenter of the vises and held firmly without screw or application of thohammer. ‘Tests can in this way be made with great rapidity and accuracy. The pulleys over which the belts rnu to main shaft are composod of onoloose and two tight ones, which perm the working of the screw backward and orward hy merely shifting the belt, which can be readily dono by tho operator at pleasure, while making tho tost. The hand-power is applied by means of a rachet, which also works both ways, Tho beams are double, and are provided with gravitatiug poises. There aro two grooved wheels, hoth behind the center on the tnsido ef the poises, which have the tendency of throwing the kuife edges into the notches and holding them there; this is preferahle to the spring arrangement. The whole machine is constrncted of metal, The screw is made of steel, the beams of red brass, and all tbe steel fulernms and bearings are made trne and even, Sream Cars on Crry Srreets.—John D, Imboden has perfected a system that is said te werk well, we append a description taken from the Philadelphia Zimes: The engine is an independent sub-motor—a complete inachiue in itself, aud can be attached to any of the present horse ears. It is simple, easily handled, cheap, and, better than all, canses no discomfort to passengers, it being out of their sight, smell and hearing, It has its own frame work, wheels and springs, carries its coal, water and enginecr, and sustains half tho weight of the car and passengers, tbe other half being carried by a siugle pair of car wheels, jnst in front of the rear platform. The car body is pivoted at its front end, on the engine, resting on the bed plate and springs over the hoiler. The engine has four driving wheels, with a wheel base of only four feet, and, owing to the simple pivoted connection with the ear body, it is capable of eurving freely. The boiler is horizontal, with # mp y 4 vertical furnace and steam dome under the driver’s seat, which is outside the front of the car, The “‘test” ear has been made the same size as that of an ordinary horse car, so as to demoustrate thoroughly that in order to convert the latter into a locomotive nothing is necessary but to take off its front wheels, put this handy little engine in their place and nail up the front door. The interior and the rest of the car caa be left intact. The new car occupies four feet less street space than one of the dummies now in use on Market street, and ten feet less than the horses, they being dispeused with. Procress or Streer Raiways.—Mr. John Stephenson, the widely-known street-car builder, gives the following sketch of the early history of street railways in this country: ‘‘ The Fourth Avenue (Harlem) railway was chartered as a city road in 1831; the first section opened ia 1832. Steam, asa motive power for street ears, was used in Fourth avenve, in New York city, as early as 1835, and has continued to be used on that avenne. There were no tramways outside of New York until after 1855. Nor did Philadelphia have a tramway proper until about 1857, at which time tramways were also introduced into Boston. Tramways did uot exist outside of the United States until 1860. George Francis Train then commenced such construetion in Birkenhead, England, but no other road was made in that kingdom till 1869, and now the chief cities of Europe are enjoying this American Inxury. In fact, it is an element of modern civilization adoptcd in Asia (Boinbay and Java) in 1868, South America in 1866 (Rio de Janeiro in 1866 and Bnenos Ayres in 1869, and uow in every city of importance). Australia is about opening its first tramway, now nearly ready, in tbe eity of Adelaide.” (oop ¥oR THE Furure.—The American Manufacturer says: At no time has so much attention been given to the rearing of young men for fitness in special branches of trade. Our scientific institutions are furnishing us with young men of excellent technical education, who enter their profession with a valua. ble stock of knowledge, whieh enables them to at once become useful and indispensable aids in the prosecution of our great industrial enterprises, Aik ror Armor Piatinc.—Recent experiments at Woolwich have proved that hy far the most efficient protection against chilled iron shot is a thick slice of air inclosed between two comparatively thin armor plates. Thus a fourinch armor plate, placed rather moro tban four feet in front of a 10-inch platc, was found to have so disintegrated an 800-pound projectile that the hinder plate was hardly bent and had a Jarge dab of metal sticking to it. _ (RY SCIENTIFIC ‘PROGRESS. Oligocheta. At the last moeting of the S. F. Microscopical Society, Dr. Gustaf Eisen, Professor of Zoology, Upsala, Swedeu, a corresponding member, called atteution to some minute worms of the Oligochata of the family Tabiicidey, and exhibited some fine plates of heautifnl drawings made hy his wkillfnt hand, representing their anatomy, The worms were all found in California, near San Francisco, in tho Sierra Nevada, or in the redwood forests along the northern coast, all inhabiting Ponda, lakes or even clear-running streams. f said family, only five gencra aro kuown, viz: Tabifes, Psamorychtes, l’reatotrix, Linnodrilns, and Thelmatodrilna, Of those, all oxcept Preatotrix wero found in California, and one, the Thelmatodrius. was endemic to the waters of the higher Sierra Nevada. The Doctor callcd attention to some points in their auatomy, and pointed ont somo characters hy which ae and genera could casily he distingnished, as in the Oligoehwta generally no external characters are found aad the species must be arranged according totho shape of the interior organs, Asa ens eharacteristic, tho supraphargagial gangfion is of great valno, bnt as to species characters the generative organs were undoubtedly the hest, The organs represented on the drawings wero principally the nervons system, the ovaries, the testes, the efferenducts and the segmental organs, all exhibiting characteristic forms in the different species. ‘The species described were Limnodritus crinis meduse, Lymnodrilus vejdoerkyi, Limnodrilus corallinus, Tabifes, marbilis, Thelmotodrilus alpestris, and Psaimor yetes Californicus. Besides these many forms had lately been found, but many more yet were likely to ocenr in our stagnant ponds or rivers. The Doctor expressed his hope that the members of tbo society, dnring their excursions, would capture and preserve all such worms found, and any contributions, bowever small, should be most thankfully appreciated, Nearly every large body of water contains one or several new forms, and a perfect collection could only be brought up by a diligent search in different parts of the country, Anz Copper Saurs Poisonous ?—This is a question commonly supposed to be settled in the aflirmative, but a discussion upon it seems to be going on abroad. The Journal of Chemistry notes that in a recent communication to the Freuch Academy of Sciences, M. Galippe points out that although the various compounds of copper give rise to a severe vomiting when admimstcred iu large doscs, the same eompounds may be taken for long periods of time in smallcr doses, progressively increased, without the occurrence of any unpleasant symptoms. Burq and Ducom fed dogs every day during two months on food which had been eooked and allowed to cool in copper vessels previously exposed to tbe action of vinegar and salt, without producing auy poisonous effects. Galippe himself, for more thau a month, lived on food cooked with or without vinegar ia untinaed copper saucepans, whose contents were often allowed to remain for 24 bours in contact with the metal before they were put on the table. The various dishes thus prepared, though often coated at their edges with tbo greenish matter commonly termed verdigris, were partaken of, hoth by himself and hy other members of his family, witbout giving rise to any dangerous or even disagreeable symptoms. Srarves ro Screntiic Mex.—An unnsual iuterest is manifested in France at the present in regard to honoring her distinguished men of science by erecting statues to their memory. Astatue to Arago is being erected at Perpignan, in the department of Orieutales Pyrenees, Anotber to Nicephore Niepce, a uamne well kuownin counection with improvements in photograpby, will be erected at Chalons-sur-Saone, his native place, by public subscription, at the iustance of tbe Munieiple Council of the city. It is also stated that a public subscription will be opened at Lyons on behalf of Ampere, the inventor of the electro-magnet, and the precursor of Faraday in the inveution of the inductive electricity. Ampere was born in that city in 1775, and his father was guillotined there on the Place des Terraux for having been active iu the great royalist rebellion against the Couveution, which ended in the famons siege of Lyous and his eapture by Dubois-Crance, SANDsToRM 1N RomE,—On June 22d a curious shower of sand and mud, eoming from tbe south, fell in Rome, which seems to be regarded as due to sand hrought in a dust-storm from the the great desert in Africa, being mixed with the pollen of some vegetable, and held in solution by the cloud which carried it, An artist, writing to the J'imes, says that yellow spots, of about a twentieth of an inch in diameter, were made on the paper on whieh he was sketching, and also—though the color varied from yellow to white—fine drops of the same diameter fell all about the neighborhood of Rome. The eloud which brought it, though giving out little or no rain, turned the sun at 4 P, M. into the senihlance of ‘‘a pale moon of greenish tint.” Similar phenomena were no doubt mistaken for a rain of hlood by the Romans, and regarded as prodigies, ominous of eoming evil. Golam Mr. J. L, Smith, of Louisville, says Nature, has examined several species of mincral containing columbium, and claims the restoration of this name for the metal instead of that of nicbinm, generally given to it in England and on the Continent. His reason for making this reclamation is that the name niobie acid was incorrectly given hy H. Roso te one of the acids found by him in his researches on the colnmbite of Bodemais, and subseqvently proved by him to bo identical with the columbic acid originally discovered by Hatchett in 1801. The name nicbie acid, however, given by Rose, has never been altered, and Mr. Sinith thinks the original columbic acid should have been retained. In remarks on the chemical constitution of the minerals describod by lim, Mr. Smith thinks that the composition of the columbates, althongh appearing at first sight complex and irregular, hecomes much simpler when due allowance is nade for the intermixture of the different varieties with each other, Columhite, the hest known of the minerals, can be well recognized as a simple columbato of iron and manganese; microlito appears to boa columhate of lime, pyrochlore, a colnmbate of the eerium oxides and lime, but whether or not a neutral columbate remains te be investigated. Hatchetolite he considers as a nentral colnmhate of nraninm and lime, and samarskite a basic columhate of iron, nraninm and yttrium oxides, Yttrotantalite and enxunite are basic colambates of yttrium and nranimu, the first being anhydrous when pure, the second containing water. Fergusonite is a hydrated basic columhate of yttria, and rogersite a columbate still moro basic. 1n arranging a general view of these minerals, Mr. Smith does not take into account the constitnents which exist in sinall quantities only. Tue Cossacks anp Scrence,—An English writer shows bow the Cossacks may apply science in the present war, as follows: ‘In a belt around their waists they earry a few pounds of gun cotton or dynamite, and with this highly destrnetive explosive thcy may work inealculable harm. A small charge of gun cotton placed simply upon rails and tired with a inse suffices to blow several feet of the iron to a distance of mauy yards, thus rendering the railway unserviceable on the iastant. A trooper may dismount, place a charge at the hase of a telegraph pole, fire it, and be in his saddle again within 60 seconds, Wires may thus be ent and communication stopped in the beart of an encmy’s conntry by fearless riders, while the lines of railway are entirely at their mercy. Even light bridges and well built stockades nay be thrown down hy the violent detouation of compressed gun cotton, and forest roads covsiderably obstrneted by trees tbrown across, which aro never so rapidly felled as whena small eharge of this explosive is fired at their roots.” Maxine Spercu Visiste.—At a mecting held at Salem, Mass., a lecture on “Visible Speech” was delivered by Prof. Graham Bell, who, by means of the drum in a human ear cut from a dead snbject. has succeeded in, producing a phonautograph, The ear is placed in the end of an ordinary speaking trumpet, on speaking into the trumpet the drum is set in motion; this moves the style; the style traces the effeet on a plate of smoked ee and by means of a camera the curves and lines can be exbibited to a large number of spectators. The five vowels make five different curves; and, according to Mr. Bell, there is ne such thing as a sound or tone pure and simple, but each is a composite of a unmber of tones; and the wavelets hy which these are produced can also be shown on a screen. Tables of the various symbols have been drawn up, and found useful for educational purposes, as was demonstrated by a young deaf and dumb pupil from the Bostou institution, who interpreted the symbols at sight. AoE oF SuN AND Srars.—Prof. Kirkwood eloses a communication upon this subject to the American Philosophical Society with the following summary of his conclusions: 1, The history of the solar system is comprised within twenty or thirty millions of years. 2. From the fact that the larger componeut of Alpha Centauri radiates twice as much light as the sun, while the mass of the former is /ess than that of the latter, we infer the probability that our solar system is tho more advanced in its physical history. 3. 61 Cygni seems to have reached a greater degree of coadensation than the sun, since, ou the bypothesis of equal destiny, the suriace of the larger member is onethird that of the sun, while the intrinsic light is less than one-ninth. 4. The companion of Sirius appears to have reacbed a stage of greater maturity than the sun, while the contrarv seems to be true in regard to tbe principal atar. New Sronces.—No less than five new varieties of sponges were discovered by Dr. Meyer, at the Ph.hppine Islands and New Guinea, during his recent travels in the Eastern archipelago. Comne.—Two French astronomers, M. Andre and M. Angot, will visit California, next year, to obscrve the transit of Mercury, which occurs on May 6th.

August 11, 1877.] MINIM... ANDsSCIENTIFIC PRESS 83 Jy = > MecHanicat Procress. Cold-Punched Nuts, Our English friends were quite surprised at tbe Aimerican nuts slrown at the Centeunial and they are free to express their appreciation of our progress in this lino of mannfacture, A volume of the reports of British Centennial Commissioners has recently been suhmitted to Parliament, which embraces the following interesting reference to the novelty of coldpunched nnts: ‘The articles shown consisted chietly of nnts or other similarly perforated specimens ; all wero of remarkable beauty, and were given away in great profnsion, These nuts had two peeutiaritics—they were of inordinate depth; and showed clearly that they had been punched cold, Visitors, however, did uot hail this new fact in practical science; they said it was an imposstbility fora 3-incl: punch, however good the qnality of steol, to penctrate through 1¥ inelt of cold iron; that, whatever might be the explanation, a pnnch of that diameter eould not do it withont being broken or crippled. : “In timo the secret leakod out, for it was no imposture. ‘The makers, it pnuching, tako advantage of the tinid preperty of solid cold iron or steel, by introdneing the clement of time into the performance of tho operation, giving to the pnoch only such a load of pressnro as it can comfortably sustain, then giving np the reins te natnre, when the instrninent penetrates at a rate dependent ou, and in prop-rtion to, the tlnidity of tho mass, Hitherto the philosopher and the experimentalist have been writing npon the flew of solids, no one heeding ,; but here at tho Centeunial was the natural law imado practieally available ; and, nnintportant as it may scem, yet vast issues are bata np thercin. The seed there sown in thonsands ef thinking minds will hring forth many other applications in metal working, anl will lead te the performanco of many operations that are deemed impossible at tbe present time,” Wat 1s Negpep to Drive aN Exuixe,— People are willing to grant the locomotive engineer a good share of courage to stand firm in his perilous position, He also has need of the fine senses, We read an article, written by an engine driver in an Mnglish paper, from which we qnote as follows: A locomotive foot-plate is the only place in which practical illustrations can ho obtained of every way iu which it is possible for an engino and engine-man to go wrong, During the time an engine is under steam with a train, everything seen, heard, felt and smelt in connection with it is capable of conveying iuforimation to the driver—of teach. ing him that the secret of successful locomotive driving is close observation, and that no man can on any other terms handle the regulator with confidence. On tbe foot-plate the eye is taught or trained to distinguish colors at a distanes; the ear learns to detect the slightest variation in tbe beats of the exbaust. Cognivant of a daily deterioration of a piston ring, it learns alse to distingnish the difference between a valve and a piston ‘ blow,” an axlobox knock from a knock in the journal. The human frame learns to decide what oseillations and pitehings are dne to a defective spring and what are due to a defective permanent way; the nose becomes, from experience acquired under all kinds of circumstances, very sensitive, so that it can detect the rising of firo, either in the lagging of the hoiler from a spark, or in the axle-box from friction, even before any mischief worth mentioning is accomplished. It is under steam and speed combined that the ‘coral reefs” and ‘‘sand banks” on railways cau be seen and marked upon the driver's chart. There are upon all lines trap-points, trap-sidings and gullets put in for the safety of the public, which, if an engine driver is thoroughly acquainted with them, are as surely capable of wrecking an engiue as is a hidden rock a stately ship. The rank aud value of every locomotive engiueer is exactly in proportiou to the labor and study he has bestowed on the matter. KEEPING Our Dust anp CinpeRs,—We read that the Rev. A. LeRoy’s simple attachment to railroad coaches, for the purpose of excluding dust and cinders when the windows are open, is now nudergoing a test on the Wagner drawingroom cars of the Central road. On a recent trip during a storm it was found that the apparatus excluded rain as well as dust, an outward current from the car keeping all drops from those sitting near the window. The invention is simply a series of slats less than four inches iu width attached to the sides of each window. When notin use they are folded compactly against the sash. The slats on the front side of tbe sashes are let down when the train is running and those in the rear are closed. So perfectly does it do its work, saysa New York paper, that a handkerchief held in the lap before an open window will not show a speck of dust or cinders in a ride of many miles. Cray Trz,—A railroad tie made of potter's clay is the patented inspiratioa of Mr. G. W. Chaadler, of Boone, Iowa. ‘T’be clay seemingly a rather yielding material in its natural state, is to be ‘‘burned hard as flint.” in scctions about a foot in leagth, which will then be holted together with iron, The result seems to be the equivalent of stone, althongh stone sleepers were long ago discarded. Weighing the Strength of Wire. The prosceution of the werk on the Brooklyn Lridge, is calling out several special devices. One is a testing machine for the strength of the, wire, and it is adapted to test up toa tension of 10,000 pounds, It was made hy Messrs. Rielle Bros., of Philadelphia. Among the general (ales of the design, which the /ron Age thinks worth noticing, are the keeping the levers in position so as to resist a shock qnickly without injury, aud with little wear; while very seasitive it is easily and qnickly controlled, whether aaa hy steam or hand. A specimen can tested withont cntting it from the coil, aud the lengtb ef the test piece may he ouo foot or tive aecording asa long or short piece is nceded, No preparation is needed to hold tbe wire, as it is introduced at once directly to the eenter of the vises and held firmly without screw or application of thohammer. ‘Tests can in this way be made with great rapidity and accuracy. The pulleys over which the belts rnu to main shaft are composod of onoloose and two tight ones, which perm the working of the screw backward and orward hy merely shifting the belt, which can be readily dono by tho operator at pleasure, while making tho tost. The hand-power is applied by means of a rachet, which also works both ways, Tho beams are double, and are provided with gravitatiug poises. There aro two grooved wheels, hoth behind the center on the tnsido ef the poises, which have the tendency of throwing the kuife edges into the notches and holding them there; this is preferahle to the spring arrangement. The whole machine is constrncted of metal, The screw is made of steel, the beams of red brass, and all tbe steel fulernms and bearings are made trne and even, Sream Cars on Crry Srreets.—John D, Imboden has perfected a system that is said te werk well, we append a description taken from the Philadelphia Zimes: The engine is an independent sub-motor—a complete inachiue in itself, aud can be attached to any of the present horse ears. It is simple, easily handled, cheap, and, better than all, canses no discomfort to passengers, it being out of their sight, smell and hearing, It has its own frame work, wheels and springs, carries its coal, water and enginecr, and sustains half tho weight of the car and passengers, tbe other half being carried by a siugle pair of car wheels, jnst in front of the rear platform. The car body is pivoted at its front end, on the engine, resting on the bed plate and springs over the hoiler. The engine has four driving wheels, with a wheel base of only four feet, and, owing to the simple pivoted connection with the ear body, it is capable of eurving freely. The boiler is horizontal, with # mp y 4 vertical furnace and steam dome under the driver’s seat, which is outside the front of the car, The “‘test” ear has been made the same size as that of an ordinary horse car, so as to demoustrate thoroughly that in order to convert the latter into a locomotive nothing is necessary but to take off its front wheels, put this handy little engine in their place and nail up the front door. The interior and the rest of the car caa be left intact. The new car occupies four feet less street space than one of the dummies now in use on Market street, and ten feet less than the horses, they being dispeused with. Procress or Streer Raiways.—Mr. John Stephenson, the widely-known street-car builder, gives the following sketch of the early history of street railways in this country: ‘‘ The Fourth Avenue (Harlem) railway was chartered as a city road in 1831; the first section opened ia 1832. Steam, asa motive power for street ears, was used in Fourth avenve, in New York city, as early as 1835, and has continued to be used on that avenne. There were no tramways outside of New York until after 1855. Nor did Philadelphia have a tramway proper until about 1857, at which time tramways were also introduced into Boston. Tramways did uot exist outside of the United States until 1860. George Francis Train then commenced such construetion in Birkenhead, England, but no other road was made in that kingdom till 1869, and now the chief cities of Europe are enjoying this American Inxury. In fact, it is an element of modern civilization adoptcd in Asia (Boinbay and Java) in 1868, South America in 1866 (Rio de Janeiro in 1866 and Bnenos Ayres in 1869, and uow in every city of importance). Australia is about opening its first tramway, now nearly ready, in tbe eity of Adelaide.” (oop ¥oR THE Furure.—The American Manufacturer says: At no time has so much attention been given to the rearing of young men for fitness in special branches of trade. Our scientific institutions are furnishing us with young men of excellent technical education, who enter their profession with a valua. ble stock of knowledge, whieh enables them to at once become useful and indispensable aids in the prosecution of our great industrial enterprises,

Aik ror Armor Piatinc.—Recent experiments at Woolwich have proved that hy far the most efficient protection against chilled iron shot is a thick slice of air inclosed between two comparatively thin armor plates. Thus a fourinch armor plate, placed rather moro tban four feet in front of a 10-inch platc, was found to have so disintegrated an 800-pound projectile that the hinder plate was hardly bent and had a Jarge dab of metal sticking to it. _ (RY SCIENTIFIC ‘PROGRESS. Oligocheta. At the last moeting of the S. F. Microscopical Society, Dr. Gustaf Eisen, Professor of Zoology, Upsala, Swedeu, a corresponding member, called atteution to some minute worms of the Oligochata of the family Tabiicidey, and exhibited some fine plates of heautifnl drawings made hy his wkillfnt hand, representing their anatomy, The worms were all found in California, near San Francisco, in tho Sierra Nevada, or in the redwood forests along the northern coast, all inhabiting Ponda, lakes or even clear-running streams. f said family, only five gencra aro kuown, viz: Tabifes, Psamorychtes, l’reatotrix, Linnodrilns, and Thelmatodrilna, Of those, all oxcept Preatotrix wero found in California, and one, the Thelmatodrius. was endemic to the waters of the higher Sierra Nevada. The Doctor callcd attention to some points in their auatomy, and pointed ont somo characters hy which ae and genera could casily he distingnished, as in the Oligoehwta generally no external characters are found aad the species must be arranged according totho shape of the interior organs, Asa ens eharacteristic, tho supraphargagial gangfion is of great valno, bnt as to species characters the generative organs were undoubtedly the hest, The organs represented on the drawings wero principally the nervons system, the ovaries, the testes, the efferenducts and the segmental organs, all exhibiting characteristic forms in the different species. ‘The species described were Limnodritus crinis meduse, Lymnodrilus vejdoerkyi, Limnodrilus corallinus, Tabifes, marbilis, Thelmotodrilus alpestris, and Psaimor yetes Californicus. Besides these many forms had lately been found, but many more yet were likely to ocenr in our stagnant ponds or rivers. The Doctor expressed his hope that the members of tbo society, dnring their excursions, would capture and preserve all such worms found, and any contributions, bowever small, should be most thankfully appreciated, Nearly every large body of water contains one or several new forms, and a perfect collection could only be brought up by a diligent search in different parts of the country, Anz Copper Saurs Poisonous ?—This is a question commonly supposed to be settled in the aflirmative, but a discussion upon it seems to be going on abroad. The Journal of Chemistry notes that in a recent communication to the Freuch Academy of Sciences, M. Galippe points out that although the various compounds of copper give rise to a severe vomiting when admimstcred iu large doscs, the same eompounds may be taken for long periods of time in smallcr doses, progressively increased, without the occurrence of any unpleasant symptoms. Burq and Ducom fed dogs every day during two months on food which had been eooked and allowed to cool in copper vessels previously exposed to tbe action of vinegar and salt, without producing auy poisonous effects. Galippe himself, for more thau a month, lived on food cooked with or without vinegar ia untinaed copper saucepans, whose contents were often allowed to remain for 24 bours in contact with the metal before they were put on the table. The various dishes thus prepared, though often coated at their edges with tbo greenish matter commonly termed verdigris, were partaken of, hoth by himself and hy other members of his family, witbout giving rise to any dangerous or even disagreeable symptoms. Srarves ro Screntiic Mex.—An unnsual iuterest is manifested in France at the present in regard to honoring her distinguished men of science by erecting statues to their memory. Astatue to Arago is being erected at Perpignan, in the department of Orieutales Pyrenees, Anotber to Nicephore Niepce, a uamne well kuownin counection with improvements in photograpby, will be erected at Chalons-sur-Saone, his native place, by public subscription, at the iustance of tbe Munieiple Council of the city. It is also stated that a public subscription will be opened at Lyons on behalf of Ampere, the inventor of the electro-magnet, and the precursor of Faraday in the inveution of the inductive electricity. Ampere was born in that city in 1775, and his father was guillotined there on the Place des Terraux for having been active iu the great royalist rebellion against the Couveution, which ended in the famons siege of Lyous and his eapture by Dubois-Crance, SANDsToRM 1N RomE,—On June 22d a curious shower of sand and mud, eoming from tbe south, fell in Rome, which seems to be regarded as due to sand hrought in a dust-storm from the the great desert in Africa, being mixed with the pollen of some vegetable, and held in solution by the cloud which carried it, An artist, writing to the J'imes, says that yellow spots, of about a twentieth of an inch in diameter, were made on the paper on whieh he was sketching, and also—though the color varied from yellow to white—fine drops of the same diameter fell all about the neighborhood of Rome. The eloud which brought it, though giving out little or no rain, turned the sun at 4 P, M. into the senihlance of ‘‘a pale moon of greenish tint.” Similar phenomena were no doubt mistaken for a rain of hlood by the Romans, and regarded as prodigies, ominous of eoming evil. Golam Mr. J. L, Smith, of Louisville, says Nature, has examined several species of mincral containing columbium, and claims the restoration of this name for the metal instead of that of nicbinm, generally given to it in England and on the Continent. His reason for making this reclamation is that the name niobie acid was incorrectly given hy H. Roso te one of the acids found by him in his researches on the colnmbite of Bodemais, and subseqvently proved by him to bo identical with the columbic acid originally discovered by Hatchett in 1801. The name nicbie acid, however, given by Rose, has never been altered, and Mr. Sinith thinks the original columbic acid should have been retained. In remarks on the chemical constitution of the minerals describod by lim, Mr. Smith thinks that the composition of the columbates, althongh appearing at first sight complex and irregular, hecomes much simpler when due allowance is nade for the intermixture of the different varieties with each other, Columhite, the hest known of the minerals, can be well recognized as a simple columbato of iron and manganese; microlito appears to boa columhate of lime, pyrochlore, a colnmbate of the eerium oxides and lime, but whether or not a neutral columbate remains te be investigated. Hatchetolite he considers as a nentral colnmhate of nraninm and lime, and samarskite a basic columhate of iron, nraninm and yttrium oxides, Yttrotantalite and enxunite are basic colambates of yttrium and nranimu, the first being anhydrous when pure, the second containing water. Fergusonite is a hydrated basic columhate of yttria, and rogersite a columbate still moro basic. 1n arranging a general view of these minerals, Mr. Smith does not take into account the constitnents which exist in sinall quantities only. Tue Cossacks anp Scrence,—An English writer shows bow the Cossacks may apply science in the present war, as follows: ‘In a belt around their waists they earry a few pounds of gun cotton or dynamite, and with this highly destrnetive explosive thcy may work inealculable harm. A small charge of gun cotton placed simply upon rails and tired with a inse suffices to blow several feet of the iron to a distance of mauy yards, thus rendering the railway unserviceable on the iastant. A trooper may dismount, place a charge at the hase of a telegraph pole, fire it, and be in his saddle again within 60 seconds, Wires may thus be ent and communication stopped in the beart of an encmy’s conntry by fearless riders, while the lines of railway are entirely at their mercy. Even light bridges and well built stockades nay be thrown down hy the violent detouation of compressed gun cotton, and forest roads covsiderably obstrneted by trees tbrown across, which aro never so rapidly felled as whena small eharge of this explosive is fired at their roots.” Maxine Spercu Visiste.—At a mecting held at Salem, Mass., a lecture on “Visible Speech” was delivered by Prof. Graham Bell, who, by means of the drum in a human ear cut from a dead snbject. has succeeded in, producing a phonautograph, The ear is placed in the end of an ordinary speaking trumpet, on speaking into the trumpet the drum is set in motion; this moves the style; the style traces the effeet on a plate of smoked ee and by means of a camera the curves and lines can be exbibited to a large number of spectators. The five vowels make five different curves; and, according to Mr. Bell, there is ne such thing as a sound or tone pure and simple, but each is a composite of a unmber of tones; and the wavelets hy which these are produced can also be shown on a screen. Tables of the various symbols have been drawn up, and found useful for educational purposes, as was demonstrated by a young deaf and dumb pupil from the Bostou institution, who interpreted the symbols at sight. AoE oF SuN AND Srars.—Prof. Kirkwood eloses a communication upon this subject to the American Philosophical Society with the following summary of his conclusions: 1, The history of the solar system is comprised within twenty or thirty millions of years. 2. From the fact that the larger componeut of Alpha Centauri radiates twice as much light as the sun, while the mass of the former is /ess than that of the latter, we infer the probability that our solar system is tho more advanced in its physical history. 3. 61 Cygni seems to have reached a greater degree of coadensation than the sun, since, ou the bypothesis of equal destiny, the suriace of the larger member is onethird that of the sun, while the intrinsic light is less than one-ninth. 4. The companion of Sirius appears to have reacbed a stage of greater maturity than the sun, while the contrarv seems to be true in regard to tbe principal atar. New Sronces.—No less than five new varieties of sponges were discovered by Dr. Meyer, at the Ph.hppine Islands and New Guinea, during his recent travels in the Eastern archipelago. Comne.—Two French astronomers, M. Andre and M. Angot, will visit California, next year, to obscrve the transit of Mercury, which occurs on May 6th.