Volume 38 (1879) (440 pages)

, & March 15, 1870. . MINING AND S@IENTIFIC PRESS. 163 — ah aw AY] ECHANICAL ‘P ROGRESS. A New Iron Car. Since the first railroad lecame a practical success efforts have been mado with nuusually poor results to make good cars of the same materialas thotracks. Two classes of men have beon Eypenimenting, One composed of enginecrs, who have not made enfticient allowance for the strains devcloped in practical use, such, for instance, ay an occasional collision, and went to the extremo of ligbt construction; the other clasy of practical car builders started on the basis of their expericnce in woodworking, and not only used too much iron, making their cars heavy and costly, but use’ it in forms not well ealcnlated to give good results, because tho material was not applied in a way to secure its full strength. Acouplo of Butlalo gentlemen, who combino both energetic and practical training, have recently invented and patented an iron car which is expected to stmke the happy mean, The inventors aro Charlcs If. Kellogg, engincer of the Kellogg bridge works, and Mr. John W. Seaver, mechauical enginoer of the samo establishniont, Several trial cars are uow beiug constructed for the Buffalo & Southwesteru railway so that the results of their practical uso will goon be known, ‘These gentlemen claim that if an iron carcan be male strong cnongh to cut through any wooden car in a collision, and to keep its sliape eveu whon throwu from tho track, it will last practically forever, that is, of course, cxeepting the necessary renewal of wearing parts. By their improved construction platform cars can he built for $500, and they will make contracts at these figures. The improved car uses, however, a pateut semi-elliptic spring, costing about 250, whicb would make the two cost just the same as if built on the old lau. P One novelty in construction is the entire absence of any trues rods under the frame, all the iron that would have been usod in them being added in the form of two additional lon. itudinal sills. ‘The truss rods were good enough in resisting dead weight, but, in case of accident, the frame wonld buckle sideways or upward and the rods gave nota bit of resistance. As now built, the frame has six sills of channel iron, giving great stiffocss in all directions, while at the same time, making the weight of iron uscd the minimnm. Every pieceis riveted iu its place and no dependence is placed on bolts and nuts. A large factor of safety, seven, is allowed in estimates of strength of the trucks, while fivo is the factor of the box frame. Ina form of coal car now being manufactured, cvery part is iron or stcel, even to the floor, sides and cross-bars on the brakes. This iron floor of riveted plates adds largely to the strength, but no allowance is made for that in tho estimates. The inventors inake a point of the arrangement of tbe swing motion and springs, a special patent covering that construction. The arrangement is such that tbe springs cannot be overloaded, as after dropping to a certain point, or in case of breakage, the weight is taken up hy the bearings and the springs eutirely relieved. In going around curves the body swings in a sort of parallel motion from the spring hangings and settles casily back on the bearings when the curve is passed. Inevery part of the work rolled iron of the form best adapted to mect the peculiar strains of the situation are used, aud tbe result is a car weighing but eight tons that will carry 20 as easily as the old wooded cars can get along with 12. We clip the ahove from tbe Buffalo Courter, In regard to the wear of iron chrs heretofore and tbe prejudice which exists against tbem, a correspoudent of the Railroad Gazette says: Some 20 years ago the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Company added to their rolling stock 500 iron box cars, the floor framing being of six sills of riveted channels, and the box of 2 x 2 x } angleirons, covered with iron 1-10 of an inch thick. The bodies were all iron, excepting the floor and a lining some three feet high. These cars, after 20 years’ use, are to be found upon the main line and its conuections, in apparently as good condition as when new. Occasionally there is one with a small patcb in the side where the iron hag rusted through. Notwithstanding this good service, a numher of ntinor officials and employees of this road persist in condemning iron cars in general, and invariably say: ‘Our company hutlt 500 of them 20 years ago, and baye not built any since; therefore they are good for nothing.” Now let us ask the reason thereof. If these cars, built at a date wheu the knowledge of iron construction was in its infancy, will pass through 20 years of service unharmed, isit not safe to conclude that, with the improved shapes of iron at command, together with the experience developed by the greatly increased use of iron in bridges, buildings, etc., where it is superseding wood daily, that a car possessing the essential requiremeuts of good Tolling stock, viz., lightness, strength and durability, with easy access to weariug parts, aud lastly, and probably one of tbe most important qualities, cheapness of manufacture, may he produced? Possihly the true reason for this animosity to iron cars in geueral by these gentlemen is that, as a class, they are meu unskilled in the construction of iron, their experience being confined to wood, and that it is but natural they should give preference to a form of building witb which they are familiar, and condemn any innovation in tbeir branch of work that would necessitate either their learning what would be comparatively a new profession, or being superseded by meu who posscss such kuowlcdge. Composite Ships. Notwithstanding that the mixed construction of vessels has been tested and found wanting in tho elements of streugth and durability, both by the government and by individual shipowners, still thero are those who adhere to its fortunes, and advocate tho adoption of this type of constructiou as adapted to the gencral want. There are four prominent objections to composito vessels: 1st. Wood aud iron do not work well together, unless the iron is galvanized, and this would make the vessel too costly for general service. 2d. The frame should be stronger than the planking, There is so much of common sense in this to a practical mind, that wo need not pauso to discuss the question. This required strength ean only be obtained by inercasing the numbor of frames in the vessel, or makiog them niuch larger, and indeed both are a necessity. 3d. The security of the butts of tbe planking is insufficient, especially at the wood ends, where a nnt cannot be put ou tbe end of tho screw holt in the vicinity of the deadwood. This leaves the wood ends insecurely fastened. The butts elsowhere also have no solidity of fastening. The plate extending from fraine to frame to receive the butt is a sham at best, The fraines should be sutliciently near each other to become tho recipionts of a scarph nib on each frame, and the planking should be scarphal flatwise, or, in the thickness of the plank; ina -+-inch plank, the inside nib may be 14 inchos, and the outside nib, 24 incbes; the inner nib should be tight, aud the onter oue calked, showing only one butt, the scarph oxtending across both frames, and receiving tastening through both frames. The forth objection is in the small fastenings, the bolts are too small to bold the planking solid for calking. The points of the holts do not fill the holes in the frames, and canuot be made to fit unless the points are of reduced size, and then they would be of insufficient strength. The calking of composite vessels is of the boat calkiug type, mere chintzing compared to tbe solid calking of a wooden vessel. In the very nature of the materials it is quite impossihle to have drift snfficient to make the fastening tight in the wooden plank and loose in tbe iron frame, and yet have solid work. When composite vessels are built, the planking should be sufficiently thick to receivo edge holting between alternate frames. As a general rule, bowever, ship-owners bave been more anxious to show tbat the composite is the cheaper than that tbey are the hetter vessel. Ship-owners, as well as underwriters, will learn by experience, if in no other way, that the hest ship is the cbeapest.—The American Ship, The Great Government, Testing Machine. The great testing machine designed by Mr. Albert Emery, for the Uuited States Commissioncrs for testing iron and steel, which has been iu process of construction for three years past at tho Watertown (Mass.) Arsenal, is now completed. Some experimental tests made with it in the presence of the Commissioners are thus described by the Boston Traveler: The merit of this new testing machine lies in its great power united with its matbematical accuracy. In illustration of this, a few of the futeresting results it bas reached iu the course of the recent experiments may be cited. A five inch bar of iron was pulled apart, and the strain registered in doiug it was 772,000 pounds. To attest its miuute exactness, a horse hair was next submitted to the strain, and it yielded toa registered force of two pounds. Again, a pine blocks of four inches thickness and two feet in length was taken and pressed into a board of two inches thickuess. Then, to again ascertain refinement of accuracy, a ben’s egg was taken and inclosed in plaster of Paris, with two small holes in each end, and, the pressure being applied, the contents were forced out of these apertures at a strain of 25 pounds, and sucb is tbe command over the action of the macbine that the pressure was stopped in an instant, and the yolk ceased to he expelled, the shell of the ege remaining unbroken. A uut was also eracked hy the machine without crusbing the kernel. No such nicety of regulated pressure, combiued with such an enormous range of power and absolutely exact registration of the strain exerted, has ever before been attained. Procress oF STEAM Excine Economy.— With Smeaton’s early Newcomen engines the consumption of coal was 29.76 tbs. per hour per horse power. Afterwards, as improved, 17.6 tbs. In 181] the Cornish pumping engine re. quired 10.87 tbs. per hour per horse power; in 1842 the improvements had reduced it to 2.90 tbs, In 1863 the best marine engines consumed 4 ths. of coal per bour per horse power, hut in 1872 only 2.11 ibs. were required. Tus most fatal disease that threatens the vitality of many of our oldest and largest macbine estahlishments is Conservatism. When a concern settles down to running on its accumulated reputation, without an effort to improve its pate . terns, processes or style of work, the disease will surely enfeehle it, while its enterprising rivals push ahead, uutil the crisis approaches and it is forced to cry, ‘‘belp me, Cassius, or I sink,’—American Machinist. © S SolENTIFIC ‘PRoGREss. The Origin of Comets. In tho exposition of bis theory of the developineut of the solar system, Kant supposes tbe eouiets to be formed from the matter of tbe condensing solar nebula. By him they wero regarded as planets, which, in some way, had been thrown out of their normally circular orbits. Laplaco, on tho other band, in his exposition of tho nebular hypothesis, took the ground that comots were formed from tho matter which is scattered through the stellar spaces, and that in their origin they bave no relation with the solar nebula, Have wo, in tbe accumulation of facts since tho days of Kant and Laplaco, learned anything that may help us to decide between these theories? Such is the inquiry proposed by Prof. H. A. Newton, who ina recent number of tho American Journal of Science and Arts, considors: First, what peculiarities each of tbem requires in the shape and distributiou of tbe cometic orbits; and, second, compares with tbe theories the facts that have beon observed with regard to tbe paths of 247 comots. Tho cometic paths are represented by the writer iu two graphic curves, and when the results of actual observations are put into the same form, it is at first found that the curve thus obtainod differs from both tbe theoretical ones. However, as the known comets all have their perihelion (that part of their orbit nearest the sun) within the orbit of Mars, and are exposed to planetary disturbances, the autbor calculates the influence of these disturbances, and ‘arrives at the conclusion that the curve corresponding to the actual cometary paths is thus brought into good agreement with the theoretical curve deduced from Laplace’s hypotbesis, whereas it does not agree so well with that deduced from Kant’s. It would seein, then, that the origin of comets must be placed in interstcllar space.— Scientific American. Tue Law or THE TELEPHONE,—M. Hermann, has adduced certain experiments to show that du Bois Reymond’s theory that the action of the telephone can be explained from the genera] law of induction in whicb the bending of the iron plate is taken into account, and the induc. tion of the current path upon itself is neglected, does not explain the facts observed. Prof. I1. F. Weber has written a paper in which he showed that Hermann’s experiments agreed entirely with the theoretical laws of induction, and that Reymond was wrong in neglect: ing the induction of the current patb upon itself, which last was really the principal agent in producing the agreement between tbeory and practice. Ten days later Helmholtz presented a paper to the Berlin Academy which covered the sameground as Prof. \Weber’s paper. The general results of tbese papers are as follows: {1.) ‘In the telepbonic circuit the tone is in general altered.” (2.) ‘The phase-displacement tbat occurs during the telphonic transit is not a constant quantity, its amount changes with the constitution of tbe-path of tbe current, and depends on tbe number of vibrations.” (3.) “In certain cases, however, the amplitude of tbe induced current becomes independent of the vihration number, and thus tbe tone of tbe exciting sound is uncbanged.” A ToapsTooL WITH THE OpoR oF CHLORINE.—A writer in the December number of the Bulletin, of the Torrey Club records his discovery of a toadstool, whicb was exhaling a strong odor of chlorine when found, and which has been descrihed as anew species hy Mr. C. H. Peck, under tbe name of Agaricus chlorinosmus. The writer states that ‘‘there could be no doubt that the plant was exhaling chlorine, since there is no other substance known having tbe same, or even aremotely similar odor.” From this be draws the inference that the ‘‘cblorine was taken up from the soil by the plant, in the form of a chloride, most probably tbe cbloride of ammonium, or possibly of sodium.” Asa eomment on this, the editor of the Bulletin calls attention to tbe fact that tbe Californian eschscholtzia is well known to havea colorless juice but with tbe odor of bydrochloric acid; yet this juice, on being tested, bas been found to give not even a trace of chlorine, and ‘‘perhaps the same result will appear in the case of the newagaris.” The odors of different fungi, like those of flowering plants, are almost as numerous and varied as the species themselves.—Scientific American. Tue Bossre in Spirit. Levets.—In a recent part of the Comptus Rendas it is recorded that M. Plantamour made some observations upon the displacement of the bubble in spirit-levels, and found that there was a daily maximum during the afternoon, accompanied by gradual changes, which extended over a period of several successive days. In confirmation of his ohservations, M. d’Abbadie reported bis own experience at Olinda, Brazil, in 1837; at Gondar, Ethiopia, in 1842; and subsequently, at Saqa. At each of these places the’ bubbles of the levels showed small variations in the direction of the plumb-line. Astrouomers have doubtless suffered from these changes, without heing aware of tbeir cause, and have heen ohliged tomask them hy taking the means of frequent observations. Poptar Trees as Licurxine Coypuctors,— Observation has induced a very popular belief in Europe and throughout the northern Atlantic States, where poplar trees are cultivated, that lightning strikes these trees in preference to all others. Prof, Asa Gray, ina note to the American Agriculturiat, says that the reason which lies at the bottom of this wido-spread opinion is coming to light. Green herbage, onl green wood—sappy wood—are cxeclleut conductors of electricity. A tree is shattered by lightning only when the dischargo reaches the naked trunk or uaked branches, which are poorer conductors. An old-fashioned Tombardy poplar, by ita hight, hy its complete covering of twigs and small branches, and their foliage down almost to the ground, and by its sappy wood, makes a capital lightning-rod, and a cheap one. Happily no one can patent it and hring it round in a wagon and insist upon trying it. To mako it surer, the treo should staud in a moist ground or near water, for wet ground is a good conductor, and dry soil a poor one, It is recommended to plant a Lombardy poplar near the house, and another close to tho barn. If the ground is dry, the nearer the well the hetter, except for the nuisance of the roots that will get into it. Tue Pranet Mars.—Prof. Lockyer is of the opinion that buman life on the planet Mars may be very mucb like human life on the earth. The light cannot be so bright, but the organs of sight may be so much more susceptible as to make the vision quite as good. The beat is probably less, as the polar snows certainly extend further, but by no means less in proportion to the lessened power of the solar rays. Tho professor agrees with others tbat several remarkable seas—including inland seas, some of them connected and some not connected by straits with still larger scas—are now definable in tbe southern hemisphere, in which, as in the case also with the earth, water seems to be much more widely spread than in tbe northern hemisphere. Tbere is, for example, a soutbern sea exceedingly like the Baltic in shape; and there is another and still more remarkable sca, now defined by the ohservation of many astronomers —one near the equator, a long straggling arm, twisting almost in the shape of an S laid on its back, from east to west, at least 1,000 miles in length, and 100 miles in breadth. A New CxremicaL— Siuicivretep HyproGEN.—We have received from Dr. Tbeodor Schucbardt, of Goerlitz, a specimen of a new hody which he calis silicium strontium. It is formed from the preparation of metallic strontium by electrolysis, but no particulars are given as to the substances present or the reaction hy whicb it is formed, As received from Dr. Schuchardt, the compound is a gray powder witb a slight odor resemhling phospburetced hydrogen. When mixed with diluted hydrochloric acid, a rapid evolntion of the spootaneously inflammable siliciureted hydrogen takes place. No particulars as to price are mentioned, hut, if obtainable in any quantity, this compound will probably be the readiest source of siliciureted hydrogen.—Chemical News. Soups 1x So.ution.—There is something quite remarkable in regard to solids in solution. When in solution they assumo the mechanical properties of liquids. Tbe entire mass of the solution is in the liquid state, and, to all appearance, the molecules of the dissolved solid are as truly in the liquid coudition as those of the solvent. Yet the molecules of the solid have not suffered any change of chemical composition, The natural inference then is, that they have experienced a change of mechanical condition. Something, perbaps, similar to the allotropie conditions of sulphur, phosperous, ete. The alternative supposition is that tbe physical molecules of tbe solid are more complex than the cbemical molecules, and in the process of solution are broken up into otbers less complex, ‘which, in their association, bave the mechanical properties of a liquid. ArmosPHERIC Vapor.—It is maintaiued by Dr. J. M. Anders that a large proportion of tbe vapor of the atmosphere may be accounted for through the process of transposition from plant life, where there is about from 25% to 30% of woodland in the country, and on this ground, considers that the practice of forest culture should be bighly commended as a meaus of improving atmospheric conditions. , Tur Telectroscope is the name proposed for anew apparatus designed hy M. Senlecq, and which we are informed by Nature, is designed to reproduce, telegraphically, at a distance, the images obtained in the camera obscura. In this device the inventor has utilized the latelyobserved sensitiveness of selenium to various sbades of light. Gas anp Water Prrzs as A Sourcror Evec RIcITy.—Mr. C. O. Gregory, in a communica. tion in the English Mechanic, states that he has successfully used the gas and water pipes in his dwelling asa source of electricity for a microphone. He connects one of his microphone wires with the gas pipe, the other with the water pipe, and finds the current ample, and, of course, constant.

, & March 15, 1870. . MINING AND S@IENTIFIC PRESS. 163 — ah aw AY] ECHANICAL ‘P ROGRESS. A New Iron Car. Since the first railroad lecame a practical success efforts have been mado with nuusually poor results to make good cars of the same materialas thotracks. Two classes of men have beon Eypenimenting, One composed of enginecrs, who have not made enfticient allowance for the strains devcloped in practical use, such, for instance, ay an occasional collision, and went to the extremo of ligbt construction; the other clasy of practical car builders started on the basis of their expericnce in woodworking, and not only used too much iron, making their cars heavy and costly, but use’ it in forms not well ealcnlated to give good results, because tho material was not applied in a way to secure its full strength. Acouplo of Butlalo gentlemen, who combino both energetic and practical training, have recently invented and patented an iron car which is expected to stmke the happy mean, The inventors aro Charlcs If. Kellogg, engincer of the Kellogg bridge works, and Mr. John W. Seaver, mechauical enginoer of the samo establishniont, Several trial cars are uow beiug constructed for the Buffalo & Southwesteru railway so that the results of their practical uso will goon be known, ‘These gentlemen claim that if an iron carcan be male strong cnongh to cut through any wooden car in a collision, and to keep its sliape eveu whon throwu from tho track, it will last practically forever, that is, of course, cxeepting the necessary renewal of wearing parts. By their improved construction platform cars can he built for $500, and they will make contracts at these figures. The improved car uses, however, a pateut semi-elliptic spring, costing about 250, whicb would make the two cost just the same as if built on the old lau. P One novelty in construction is the entire absence of any trues rods under the frame, all the iron that would have been usod in them being added in the form of two additional lon. itudinal sills. ‘The truss rods were good enough in resisting dead weight, but, in case of accident, the frame wonld buckle sideways or upward and the rods gave nota bit of resistance. As now built, the frame has six sills of channel iron, giving great stiffocss in all directions, while at the same time, making the weight of iron uscd the minimnm. Every pieceis riveted iu its place and no dependence is placed on bolts and nuts. A large factor of safety, seven, is allowed in estimates of strength of the trucks, while fivo is the factor of the box frame. Ina form of coal car now being manufactured, cvery part is iron or stcel, even to the floor, sides and cross-bars on the brakes. This iron floor of riveted plates adds largely to the strength, but no allowance is made for that in tho estimates. The inventors inake a point of the arrangement of tbe swing motion and springs, a special patent covering that construction. The arrangement is such that tbe springs cannot be overloaded, as after dropping to a certain point, or in case of breakage, the weight is taken up hy the bearings and the springs eutirely relieved. In going around curves the body swings in a sort of parallel motion from the spring hangings and settles casily back on the bearings when the curve is passed. Inevery part of the work rolled iron of the form best adapted to mect the peculiar strains of the situation are used, aud tbe result is a car weighing but eight tons that will carry 20 as easily as the old wooded cars can get along with 12. We clip the ahove from tbe Buffalo Courter, In regard to the wear of iron chrs heretofore and tbe prejudice which exists against tbem, a correspoudent of the Railroad Gazette says: Some 20 years ago the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Company added to their rolling stock 500 iron box cars, the floor framing being of six sills of riveted channels, and the box of 2 x 2 x } angleirons, covered with iron 1-10 of an inch thick. The bodies were all iron, excepting the floor and a lining some three feet high. These cars, after 20 years’ use, are to be found upon the main line and its conuections, in apparently as good condition as when new. Occasionally there is one with a small patcb in the side where the iron hag rusted through. Notwithstanding this good service, a numher of ntinor officials and employees of this road persist in condemning iron cars in general, and invariably say: ‘Our company hutlt 500 of them 20 years ago, and baye not built any since; therefore they are good for nothing.” Now let us ask the reason thereof. If these cars, built at a date wheu the knowledge of iron construction was in its infancy, will pass through 20 years of service unharmed, isit not safe to conclude that, with the improved shapes of iron at command, together with the experience developed by the greatly increased use of iron in bridges, buildings, etc., where it is superseding wood daily, that a car possessing the essential requiremeuts of good Tolling stock, viz., lightness, strength and durability, with easy access to weariug parts, aud lastly, and probably one of tbe most important qualities, cheapness of manufacture, may he produced? Possihly the true reason for this animosity to iron cars in geueral by these gentlemen is that, as a class, they are meu unskilled in the construction of iron, their experience being confined to wood, and that it is but natural they should give preference to a form of building witb which they are familiar, and condemn any innovation in tbeir branch of work that would necessitate either their learning what would be comparatively a new profession, or being superseded by meu who posscss such kuowlcdge. Composite Ships. Notwithstanding that the mixed construction of vessels has been tested and found wanting in tho elements of streugth and durability, both by the government and by individual shipowners, still thero are those who adhere to its fortunes, and advocate tho adoption of this type of constructiou as adapted to the gencral want. There are four prominent objections to composito vessels: 1st. Wood aud iron do not work well together, unless the iron is galvanized, and this would make the vessel too costly for general service. 2d. The frame should be stronger than the planking, There is so much of common sense in this to a practical mind, that wo need not pauso to discuss the question. This required strength ean only be obtained by inercasing the numbor of frames in the vessel, or makiog them niuch larger, and indeed both are a necessity. 3d. The security of the butts of tbe planking is insufficient, especially at the wood ends, where a nnt cannot be put ou tbe end of tho screw holt in the vicinity of the deadwood. This leaves the wood ends insecurely fastened. The butts elsowhere also have no solidity of fastening. The plate extending from fraine to frame to receive the butt is a sham at best, The fraines should be sutliciently near each other to become tho recipionts of a scarph nib on each frame, and the planking should be scarphal flatwise, or, in the thickness of the plank; ina -+-inch plank, the inside nib may be 14 inchos, and the outside nib, 24 incbes; the inner nib should be tight, aud the onter oue calked, showing only one butt, the scarph oxtending across both frames, and receiving tastening through both frames. The forth objection is in the small fastenings, the bolts are too small to bold the planking solid for calking. The points of the holts do not fill the holes in the frames, and canuot be made to fit unless the points are of reduced size, and then they would be of insufficient strength. The calking of composite vessels is of the boat calkiug type, mere chintzing compared to tbe solid calking of a wooden vessel. In the very nature of the materials it is quite impossihle to have drift snfficient to make the fastening tight in the wooden plank and loose in tbe iron frame, and yet have solid work. When composite vessels are built, the planking should be sufficiently thick to receivo edge holting between alternate frames. As a general rule, bowever, ship-owners bave been more anxious to show tbat the composite is the cheaper than that tbey are the hetter vessel. Ship-owners, as well as underwriters, will learn by experience, if in no other way, that the hest ship is the cbeapest.—The American Ship, The Great Government, Testing Machine. The great testing machine designed by Mr. Albert Emery, for the Uuited States Commissioncrs for testing iron and steel, which has been iu process of construction for three years past at tho Watertown (Mass.) Arsenal, is now completed. Some experimental tests made with it in the presence of the Commissioners are thus described by the Boston Traveler: The merit of this new testing machine lies in its great power united with its matbematical accuracy. In illustration of this, a few of the futeresting results it bas reached iu the course of the recent experiments may be cited. A five inch bar of iron was pulled apart, and the strain registered in doiug it was 772,000 pounds. To attest its miuute exactness, a horse hair was next submitted to the strain, and it yielded toa registered force of two pounds. Again, a pine blocks of four inches thickness and two feet in length was taken and pressed into a board of two inches thickuess. Then, to again ascertain refinement of accuracy, a ben’s egg was taken and inclosed in plaster of Paris, with two small holes in each end, and, the pressure being applied, the contents were forced out of these apertures at a strain of 25 pounds, and sucb is tbe command over the action of the macbine that the pressure was stopped in an instant, and the yolk ceased to he expelled, the shell of the ege remaining unbroken. A uut was also eracked hy the machine without crusbing the kernel. No such nicety of regulated pressure, combiued with such an enormous range of power and absolutely exact registration of the strain exerted, has ever before been attained. Procress oF STEAM Excine Economy.— With Smeaton’s early Newcomen engines the consumption of coal was 29.76 tbs. per hour per horse power. Afterwards, as improved, 17.6 tbs. In 181] the Cornish pumping engine re.

quired 10.87 tbs. per hour per horse power; in 1842 the improvements had reduced it to 2.90 tbs, In 1863 the best marine engines consumed 4 ths. of coal per bour per horse power, hut in 1872 only 2.11 ibs. were required. Tus most fatal disease that threatens the vitality of many of our oldest and largest macbine estahlishments is Conservatism. When a concern settles down to running on its accumulated reputation, without an effort to improve its pate . terns, processes or style of work, the disease will surely enfeehle it, while its enterprising rivals push ahead, uutil the crisis approaches and it is forced to cry, ‘‘belp me, Cassius, or I sink,’—American Machinist. © S SolENTIFIC ‘PRoGREss. The Origin of Comets. In tho exposition of bis theory of the developineut of the solar system, Kant supposes tbe eouiets to be formed from the matter of tbe condensing solar nebula. By him they wero regarded as planets, which, in some way, had been thrown out of their normally circular orbits. Laplaco, on tho other band, in his exposition of tho nebular hypothesis, took the ground that comots were formed from tho matter which is scattered through the stellar spaces, and that in their origin they bave no relation with the solar nebula, Have wo, in tbe accumulation of facts since tho days of Kant and Laplaco, learned anything that may help us to decide between these theories? Such is the inquiry proposed by Prof. H. A. Newton, who ina recent number of tho American Journal of Science and Arts, considors: First, what peculiarities each of tbem requires in the shape and distributiou of tbe cometic orbits; and, second, compares with tbe theories the facts that have beon observed with regard to tbe paths of 247 comots. Tho cometic paths are represented by the writer iu two graphic curves, and when the results of actual observations are put into the same form, it is at first found that the curve thus obtainod differs from both tbe theoretical ones. However, as the known comets all have their perihelion (that part of their orbit nearest the sun) within the orbit of Mars, and are exposed to planetary disturbances, the autbor calculates the influence of these disturbances, and ‘arrives at the conclusion that the curve corresponding to the actual cometary paths is thus brought into good agreement with the theoretical curve deduced from Laplace’s hypotbesis, whereas it does not agree so well with that deduced from Kant’s. It would seein, then, that the origin of comets must be placed in interstcllar space.— Scientific American. Tue Law or THE TELEPHONE,—M. Hermann, has adduced certain experiments to show that du Bois Reymond’s theory that the action of the telephone can be explained from the genera] law of induction in whicb the bending of the iron plate is taken into account, and the induc. tion of the current path upon itself is neglected, does not explain the facts observed. Prof. I1. F. Weber has written a paper in which he showed that Hermann’s experiments agreed entirely with the theoretical laws of induction, and that Reymond was wrong in neglect: ing the induction of the current patb upon itself, which last was really the principal agent in producing the agreement between tbeory and practice. Ten days later Helmholtz presented a paper to the Berlin Academy which covered the sameground as Prof. \Weber’s paper. The general results of tbese papers are as follows: {1.) ‘In the telepbonic circuit the tone is in general altered.” (2.) ‘The phase-displacement tbat occurs during the telphonic transit is not a constant quantity, its amount changes with the constitution of tbe-path of tbe current, and depends on tbe number of vibrations.” (3.) “In certain cases, however, the amplitude of tbe induced current becomes independent of the vihration number, and thus tbe tone of tbe exciting sound is uncbanged.” A ToapsTooL WITH THE OpoR oF CHLORINE.—A writer in the December number of the Bulletin, of the Torrey Club records his discovery of a toadstool, whicb was exhaling a strong odor of chlorine when found, and which has been descrihed as anew species hy Mr. C. H. Peck, under tbe name of Agaricus chlorinosmus. The writer states that ‘‘there could be no doubt that the plant was exhaling chlorine, since there is no other substance known having tbe same, or even aremotely similar odor.” From this be draws the inference that the ‘‘cblorine was taken up from the soil by the plant, in the form of a chloride, most probably tbe cbloride of ammonium, or possibly of sodium.” Asa eomment on this, the editor of the Bulletin calls attention to tbe fact that tbe Californian eschscholtzia is well known to havea colorless juice but with tbe odor of bydrochloric acid; yet this juice, on being tested, bas been found to give not even a trace of chlorine, and ‘‘perhaps the same result will appear in the case of the newagaris.” The odors of different fungi, like those of flowering plants, are almost as numerous and varied as the species themselves.—Scientific American. Tue Bossre in Spirit. Levets.—In a recent part of the Comptus Rendas it is recorded that M. Plantamour made some observations upon the displacement of the bubble in spirit-levels, and found that there was a daily maximum during the afternoon, accompanied by gradual changes, which extended over a period of several successive days. In confirmation of his ohservations, M. d’Abbadie reported bis own experience at Olinda, Brazil, in 1837; at Gondar, Ethiopia, in 1842; and subsequently, at Saqa. At each of these places the’ bubbles of the levels showed small variations in the direction of the plumb-line. Astrouomers have doubtless suffered from these changes, without heing aware of tbeir cause, and have heen ohliged tomask them hy taking the means of frequent observations. Poptar Trees as Licurxine Coypuctors,— Observation has induced a very popular belief in Europe and throughout the northern Atlantic States, where poplar trees are cultivated, that lightning strikes these trees in preference to all others. Prof, Asa Gray, ina note to the American Agriculturiat, says that the reason which lies at the bottom of this wido-spread opinion is coming to light. Green herbage, onl green wood—sappy wood—are cxeclleut conductors of electricity. A tree is shattered by lightning only when the dischargo reaches the naked trunk or uaked branches, which are poorer conductors. An old-fashioned Tombardy poplar, by ita hight, hy its complete covering of twigs and small branches, and their foliage down almost to the ground, and by its sappy wood, makes a capital lightning-rod, and a cheap one. Happily no one can patent it and hring it round in a wagon and insist upon trying it. To mako it surer, the treo should staud in a moist ground or near water, for wet ground is a good conductor, and dry soil a poor one, It is recommended to plant a Lombardy poplar near the house, and another close to tho barn. If the ground is dry, the nearer the well the hetter, except for the nuisance of the roots that will get into it. Tue Pranet Mars.—Prof. Lockyer is of the opinion that buman life on the planet Mars may be very mucb like human life on the earth. The light cannot be so bright, but the organs of sight may be so much more susceptible as to make the vision quite as good. The beat is probably less, as the polar snows certainly extend further, but by no means less in proportion to the lessened power of the solar rays. Tho professor agrees with others tbat several remarkable seas—including inland seas, some of them connected and some not connected by straits with still larger scas—are now definable in tbe southern hemisphere, in which, as in the case also with the earth, water seems to be much more widely spread than in tbe northern hemisphere. Tbere is, for example, a soutbern sea exceedingly like the Baltic in shape; and there is another and still more remarkable sca, now defined by the ohservation of many astronomers —one near the equator, a long straggling arm, twisting almost in the shape of an S laid on its back, from east to west, at least 1,000 miles in length, and 100 miles in breadth. A New CxremicaL— Siuicivretep HyproGEN.—We have received from Dr. Tbeodor Schucbardt, of Goerlitz, a specimen of a new hody which he calis silicium strontium. It is formed from the preparation of metallic strontium by electrolysis, but no particulars are given as to the substances present or the reaction hy whicb it is formed, As received from Dr. Schuchardt, the compound is a gray powder witb a slight odor resemhling phospburetced hydrogen. When mixed with diluted hydrochloric acid, a rapid evolntion of the spootaneously inflammable siliciureted hydrogen takes place. No particulars as to price are mentioned, hut, if obtainable in any quantity, this compound will probably be the readiest source of siliciureted hydrogen.—Chemical News. Soups 1x So.ution.—There is something quite remarkable in regard to solids in solution. When in solution they assumo the mechanical properties of liquids. Tbe entire mass of the solution is in the liquid state, and, to all appearance, the molecules of the dissolved solid are as truly in the liquid coudition as those of the solvent. Yet the molecules of the solid have not suffered any change of chemical composition, The natural inference then is, that they have experienced a change of mechanical condition. Something, perbaps, similar to the allotropie conditions of sulphur, phosperous, ete. The alternative supposition is that tbe physical molecules of tbe solid are more complex than the cbemical molecules, and in the process of solution are broken up into otbers less complex, ‘which, in their association, bave the mechanical properties of a liquid. ArmosPHERIC Vapor.—It is maintaiued by Dr. J. M. Anders that a large proportion of tbe vapor of the atmosphere may be accounted for through the process of transposition from plant life, where there is about from 25% to 30% of woodland in the country, and on this ground, considers that the practice of forest culture should be bighly commended as a meaus of improving atmospheric conditions. , Tur Telectroscope is the name proposed for anew apparatus designed hy M. Senlecq, and which we are informed by Nature, is designed to reproduce, telegraphically, at a distance, the images obtained in the camera obscura. In this device the inventor has utilized the latelyobserved sensitiveness of selenium to various sbades of light. Gas anp Water Prrzs as A Sourcror Evec RIcITy.—Mr. C. O. Gregory, in a communica. tion in the English Mechanic, states that he has successfully used the gas and water pipes in his dwelling asa source of electricity for a microphone. He connects one of his microphone wires with the gas pipe, the other with the water pipe, and finds the current ample, and, of course, constant.