Volume 032-4 - October 1978 (8 pages)

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE PREHISTORY OF NEVADA COUNTY _~ The human history of Nevada County goes far back in time, long before the well publicized activities of the gold miners in the 1840’s and 1850's. The specific date for the entry of the first Indian groups into Nevada County is unknown. On-going archaeological investigations, primarily in and near the eastern end of the county, suggest Native Americans had been utilizing the areas in and around Truckee and Lake Tahoe for possibly six thousand years. A more conservative and broadly accepted time frame places the prehistoric residents in the county by approximately three thousand years ago. Regardless of the exact date, Indian peoples have been in the county and surrounding areas for a significant period of time. Information about the early Nevada County Indians comes from three major sources: archaeology, ethnography, and history. Archaeology is the study of the past based on the physical objects and other evidence left by human activity. This study involves, among other things, an analysis of the actions of previous peoples by the examination of artifacts they made or used. Ethnography is the study of living individuals or groups of peoples in order to learn mmgbout their specific cultural adaptations : ‘nd practices. History is the study of written records and other data which bring out information about recorded activities and events. Evidence from all three sources is available for an examination of the Indians of Nevada County. The pattern of prehistoric human activity in Nevada County will never be completely known, but data from the above three sources allow for some basic statements and observations. The bibliography at the end of this article lista the major publications dealing with the prehistory of Nevada and surrounding counties. The serious student is referred to these sources for an in-depth examination of county and area prehistory. I commend to your attention particularly the works of A.L. Kroeber, Beals, Downs, and Wilson and Towne. These authors thoroughly record and document the lifestyles of the Nevada County native Indian peoples. It is not the purpose of this article to repeat the information they have gathered and written. It is my intention to provide a brief, general introduction to county prehistory. Specific activities and adaptations may be found in the works cited. Different environments provide iffering opportunities and limitations. erefore, Indian lifestyles are variable aroughtout the New World. No tandard set of beliefs, customs, or behaviors were common to all American Indians. To fully know a native American group one must ignore By Michael Claytor stereotypes and search out the unique environment and cultural practices of a specific people. Thus it bears stating that the Indians of Nevada County did not hunt buffalo, smoke peace pipes, or take scalps. Rather they lived a peaceful life in close contact and harmony with their land. They moved easily and comfortably though a world they knew and appreciated. Cultural appreciation requires the recognition of human variability in both custom and appearance. The first evidence of human occupation in Nevada County is associated with the Martis Complex (Elsasser 1960). The term is used by archaeologists to refer to the earliest peoples and their cultural patterns in the local area. This broadly based cultural expression is found throughout the northern Sierra on both sides of the range. It is sufficient for our purposes to point out that these peoples were hunters end gatherers who utilized the natural resources of. the Sierra on a seasonal basis, primarily from spring through fall. They moved in small groups in pursuit of plants, animals, and fish and other natural resources. Evidence of Martis activities exists largely in the form of stone tools, their flaked stone projectile points, drills, and scrapers and their ground stone seed processing tools such as the mano and metate. The Martis Compiex is tentatively dated at from 1000 B.C. to about A.D. 500 (Elston 1971: 136-137). Whether the Martis peoples were ancestral to the later Indians of the county is not positively known at this time. It is possible the Washo are their descendents. No evidence of Martis language remains and the extent of their cultural patterns is still under study. Martis activity apparently predated the bow and arrow. The spear thrower, or atlatl, was used to propel wooden shafts through the air. The bow was a later introduction. At the time of the initial EuroAmerican entry into Nevada County, the area was home for two Indian tribal groups. West of the Sierra crest, along the drainage systems of the Yuba and Bear Rivers, lived the Nisenan. The land to the east, along the tributaries of the Truckee River, was claimed by the Washo. The area at the Sierra crest contained no permanent villages and was probably utilized seasonally by both groups in their pursuit of food and other raw materials (Beals 1933: 336). The Nisenan, occasionally called the Southern Maidu, were situated along the western slope of the Sierra in the Yuba, Bear, and American River . drainages. Their territory extended from the Sacramento River in the west to the summit of the Sierra in the east. The Nisenan spoke a dialect of the Maidu language which is thought to be connected with the larger Penutian language family. Other Maidu language dialects included Konkow, spoken in the Chico area, Northeastern Maidu, spoken in the Quincy area. Most Indian groups of the interior central California area belonged to the Penutian language family, including the Wintu, Patwin, Miwok, and Yokuts. The Washo of the eastern end of Nevada County were Hokan speakers, linguistically quite different from the Nisenan. Washo nuclear territory was located further east, focused on the Carson Valley region of Nevada. Lake Tahoe was a central feature of Washo territory, though used seasonally, and the Hokan speaking group was distributed along the eastern Sierra, north, east, and south of this important place. The Nisenan and Washo differed culturally as well as linguistically, although both were considered as hunters and gatherers. Neither group raised domestic food crops and the dog was the only domesticated animal. Foods were secured from the environment using a totally stone-age technology. Relying on natural foods from the environment required a complex technology and a flexible life style, inasmuch as different foods became seasonally .available over a wide area, requiring frequent trips of variable length. Among the Nisenan and Washo it seems likely that plant resources provided the bulk of the aboriginal diet, supplemented by large and small game, fish, birds, and insects. The staple of the Nisenan was the acorn, which was gathered in the fall. The black oak (Quercus Kelloggii) was the favored species and provided the bulk of the local acorn crop (Beals 1933). Oak trees in Nevada County grow to an elevation of approximately 6000 feet and are not found in the eastern part of the county. The Washo, thus sought another plant staple, the nut from the Pinyon (Pinus monophylia). Pinyon nuts were also secured during the fall but the Washo had to journey further east into Nevada to secure sufficient quantities to support them through the cold eastern Sierra winters. Both acorns and pinyon nuts were stored for later use. The range of foods secured from the environment was broad and starvation was uncommon because of the wide range of possible alternatives. Duncan, speaking of the Nisenan, states they “utilized as food virtually every edible plant that grew in their area” (1968:80). The Washo similarily knew their territory and its food resources. Due to a more gentle climate and greater food resources, the Nisenan in the western end of Nevada County had a greater population density than the Washo to the east. Exact figures are not 27.

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE PREHISTORY OF NEVADA COUNTY _~ The human history of Nevada County goes far back in time, long before the well publicized activities of the gold miners in the 1840’s and 1850's. The specific date for the entry of the first Indian groups into Nevada County is unknown. On-going archaeological investigations, primarily in and near the eastern end of the county, suggest Native Americans had been utilizing the areas in and around Truckee and Lake Tahoe for possibly six thousand years. A more conservative and broadly accepted time frame places the prehistoric residents in the county by approximately three thousand years ago. Regardless of the exact date, Indian peoples have been in the county and surrounding areas for a significant period of time. Information about the early Nevada County Indians comes from three major sources: archaeology, ethnography, and history. Archaeology is the study of the past based on the physical objects and other evidence left by human activity. This study involves, among other things, an analysis of the actions of previous peoples by the examination of artifacts they made or used. Ethnography is the study of living individuals or groups of peoples in order to learn mmgbout their specific cultural adaptations : ‘nd practices. History is the study of written records and other data which bring out information about recorded activities and events. Evidence from all three sources is available for an examination of the Indians of Nevada County. The pattern of prehistoric human activity in Nevada County will never be completely known, but data from the above three sources allow for some basic statements and observations. The bibliography at the end of this article lista the major publications dealing with the prehistory of Nevada and surrounding counties. The serious student is referred to these sources for an in-depth examination of county and area prehistory. I commend to your attention particularly the works of A.L. Kroeber, Beals, Downs, and Wilson and Towne. These authors thoroughly record and document the lifestyles of the Nevada County native Indian peoples. It is not the purpose of this article to repeat the information they have gathered and written. It is my intention to provide a brief, general introduction to county prehistory. Specific activities and adaptations may be found in the works cited. Different environments provide iffering opportunities and limitations. erefore, Indian lifestyles are variable aroughtout the New World. No tandard set of beliefs, customs, or behaviors were common to all American Indians. To fully know a native American group one must ignore By Michael Claytor stereotypes and search out the unique environment and cultural practices of a specific people. Thus it bears stating that the Indians of Nevada County did not hunt buffalo, smoke peace pipes, or take scalps. Rather they lived a peaceful life in close contact and harmony with their land. They moved easily and comfortably though a world they knew and appreciated. Cultural appreciation requires the recognition of human variability in both custom and appearance. The first evidence of human occupation in Nevada County is associated with the Martis Complex (Elsasser 1960). The term is used by archaeologists to refer to the earliest peoples and their cultural patterns in the local area. This broadly based cultural expression is found throughout the northern Sierra on both sides of the range. It is sufficient for our purposes to point out that these peoples were hunters end gatherers who utilized the natural resources of. the Sierra on a seasonal basis, primarily from spring through fall. They moved in small groups in pursuit of plants, animals, and fish and other natural resources. Evidence of Martis activities exists largely in the form of stone tools, their flaked stone projectile points, drills, and scrapers and their ground stone seed processing tools such as the mano and metate. The Martis Compiex is

tentatively dated at from 1000 B.C. to about A.D. 500 (Elston 1971: 136-137). Whether the Martis peoples were ancestral to the later Indians of the county is not positively known at this time. It is possible the Washo are their descendents. No evidence of Martis language remains and the extent of their cultural patterns is still under study. Martis activity apparently predated the bow and arrow. The spear thrower, or atlatl, was used to propel wooden shafts through the air. The bow was a later introduction. At the time of the initial EuroAmerican entry into Nevada County, the area was home for two Indian tribal groups. West of the Sierra crest, along the drainage systems of the Yuba and Bear Rivers, lived the Nisenan. The land to the east, along the tributaries of the Truckee River, was claimed by the Washo. The area at the Sierra crest contained no permanent villages and was probably utilized seasonally by both groups in their pursuit of food and other raw materials (Beals 1933: 336). The Nisenan, occasionally called the Southern Maidu, were situated along the western slope of the Sierra in the Yuba, Bear, and American River . drainages. Their territory extended from the Sacramento River in the west to the summit of the Sierra in the east. The Nisenan spoke a dialect of the Maidu language which is thought to be connected with the larger Penutian language family. Other Maidu language dialects included Konkow, spoken in the Chico area, Northeastern Maidu, spoken in the Quincy area. Most Indian groups of the interior central California area belonged to the Penutian language family, including the Wintu, Patwin, Miwok, and Yokuts. The Washo of the eastern end of Nevada County were Hokan speakers, linguistically quite different from the Nisenan. Washo nuclear territory was located further east, focused on the Carson Valley region of Nevada. Lake Tahoe was a central feature of Washo territory, though used seasonally, and the Hokan speaking group was distributed along the eastern Sierra, north, east, and south of this important place. The Nisenan and Washo differed culturally as well as linguistically, although both were considered as hunters and gatherers. Neither group raised domestic food crops and the dog was the only domesticated animal. Foods were secured from the environment using a totally stone-age technology. Relying on natural foods from the environment required a complex technology and a flexible life style, inasmuch as different foods became seasonally .available over a wide area, requiring frequent trips of variable length. Among the Nisenan and Washo it seems likely that plant resources provided the bulk of the aboriginal diet, supplemented by large and small game, fish, birds, and insects. The staple of the Nisenan was the acorn, which was gathered in the fall. The black oak (Quercus Kelloggii) was the favored species and provided the bulk of the local acorn crop (Beals 1933). Oak trees in Nevada County grow to an elevation of approximately 6000 feet and are not found in the eastern part of the county. The Washo, thus sought another plant staple, the nut from the Pinyon (Pinus monophylia). Pinyon nuts were also secured during the fall but the Washo had to journey further east into Nevada to secure sufficient quantities to support them through the cold eastern Sierra winters. Both acorns and pinyon nuts were stored for later use. The range of foods secured from the environment was broad and starvation was uncommon because of the wide range of possible alternatives. Duncan, speaking of the Nisenan, states they “utilized as food virtually every edible plant that grew in their area” (1968:80). The Washo similarily knew their territory and its food resources. Due to a more gentle climate and greater food resources, the Nisenan in the western end of Nevada County had a greater population density than the Washo to the east. Exact figures are not 27.